BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: India's mineral distribution map is mandatory for GS1 geography. Energy policy — solar targets, nuclear programme, coal dependence — is a recurring GS3 theme. The three-stage nuclear programme, India's thorium reserves, and oil field locations (Digboi, Mumbai High, KG Basin) appear directly in Prelims.
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
| Mineral | Major Producing States | Key Locations | UPSC Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Iron Ore | Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka | Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Singhbhum, Bastar | India 7th in iron ore reserves (USGS 2025; ~5.5 billion tonnes crude ore); 4th in production; 2nd largest steel producer (2023) |
| Coal | Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, MP | Jharia (largest), Raniganj (oldest), Singrauli | Gondwana coalfields (~98% of reserves, ~99% of production); Tertiary coal (NE, limited) |
| Petroleum | Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai Offshore | Digboi (oldest, 1889), Mumbai High (largest), Ankleshwar, KG Basin | Digboi = India's oldest oil refinery (1901) |
| Bauxite | Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra | Koraput, Kalahandi, Amarkantak | Odisha = largest reserves; raw material for aluminium |
| Copper | Rajasthan, Jharkhand, MP | Khetri (largest mine), Singhbhum, Malanjkhand | India is net importer; Khetri = "Copper City of India" |
| Mica | Andhra Pradesh (Nellore — #1 by production), Jharkhand, Rajasthan | Nellore belt, Hazaribagh, Ajmer | AP = largest crude mica producer (~dominant share); India was world's largest exporter of sheet mica |
| Gold | Karnataka | Kolar Gold Fields (near exhausted), Hutti (Raichur, still active) | KGF — once among world's deepest mines |
| Uranium | Jharkhand, AP, Meghalaya | Jaduguda, Tummalapalle (large deposit) | DAE controls; used in PHWR reactors |
| Thorium | Kerala, Tamil Nadu | Monazite sand — Chavara, Manavalakurichi | India has ~25% of world's thorium reserves |
| Manganese | Odisha, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra | Balaghat, Sandur | Used in steel making and batteries |
| Limestone | MP, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat | Kota, Jodhpur, Ariyalur | Raw material for cement; India 2nd largest cement producer |
| Energy Source | Installed Capacity (March 2026) | Share | Key Policy |
|---|---|---|---|
| Thermal (coal + gas + oil) | ~249 GW (coal ~222 GW) | ~46.8% | Coal India Ltd.; NTPC |
| Hydropower | ~47 GW | ~8.8% | National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) |
| Nuclear | ~8.88 GW (25 reactor units; 7 station sites) | ~1.7% | NPCIL; RAPP-7 commissioned April 2025; PFBR achieved first criticality April 6, 2026 |
| Solar | ~150 GW (record 45 GW added in FY2025-26) | ~28.2% | PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana; PM-KUSUM; India now 3rd globally |
| Wind | ~56 GW (record 6.05 GW added FY2025-26; India 4th globally) | ~10.5% | NIWE; Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan lead |
| Other Renewable (small hydro, biomass, waste) | ~15 GW | ~2.8% | — |
| Total | ~533 GW (532.74 GW, CEA March 2026) | — | 500 GW renewable target by 2030; non-fossil now >53% |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
What are Minerals?
Mineral: A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition. Minerals are found in rocks — as veins/lodes (metallic minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks), in beds/layers (sedimentary rocks — coal, limestone, gypsum), or in alluvial deposits (placers — gold, platinum, tin).
Classification:
- Metallic minerals:
- Ferrous: Contain iron — iron ore (hematite, magnetite), manganese, nickel, cobalt, chromite
- Non-ferrous: Do not contain iron — copper, bauxite (aluminium ore), lead, zinc, gold, silver
- Non-metallic minerals: No metal content — limestone, mica, gypsum, salt (halite), graphite, sulphur, potash
- Energy minerals / Mineral fuels: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, thorium
India's Mineral Distribution
Iron Ore: India has the 7th largest iron ore reserves in the world (~5.5 billion tonnes crude ore, iron content ~3.4 billion tonnes; USGS MCS 2025). India ranks 4th in iron ore production, not reserves — a common exam confusion. Types: Hematite (Fe₂O₃ — best quality, 60-70% Fe) found in Odisha-Jharkhand belt; Magnetite (Fe₃O₄ — highest Fe content ~72%) found in Karnataka. Key belts: Odisha-Jharkhand (Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Singhbhum), Chhattisgarh-Maharashtra (Bastar, Durg), Karnataka (Bellary-Hospet), Goa.
Coal: Two types: Gondwana coal (formed ~200–300 million years ago; high quality; ~98% of India's reserves and ~99% of production; Damodar Valley — Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Karanpura) and Tertiary coal (formed ~15–60 million years ago; lower grade; Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal, J&K, Nagaland). Jharia (Jharkhand) = largest coal field in India. Raniganj (West Bengal) = oldest coal field (commercial mining since 1774).
Petroleum:
- Assam: Digboi (1889 — India's oldest oilfield; refinery 1901), Naharkatia, Moran-Hugrijan
- Gujarat: Ankleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana
- Mumbai High: Offshore, ~160 km west of Mumbai; largest producing field (managed by ONGC)
- Krishna-Godavari Basin: Deepwater offshore; KG-D6 block (Reliance); significant gas reserves
- Rajasthan: Barmer-Sanchore basin (Cairn India/Vedanta)
Mica: India was historically the world's largest exporter of sheet mica (used in electrical and electronics industries — insulation). Andhra Pradesh (Nellore district) is the largest crude mica producer by volume. Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Koderma, Giridih) and Rajasthan (Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jaipur) are also significant producers, historically important for sheet mica exports.
Power Resources
UPSC GS3 — Energy Policy and Targets:
Conventional Energy:
- Coal: Thermal power plants use coal; ~50% of India's electricity generation. Coal India Limited (CIL) = world's largest coal mining company. Issue: Stranded assets as renewable energy becomes cheaper.
- Petroleum: Mostly for transportation; India imports ~88–89% of its crude oil needs (FY2024-25, all-time high; up from ~85% in 2022). Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) at Vishakhapatnam, Mangaluru, Padur — total ~5.3 million tonnes.
- Natural Gas: GAIL (Gas Authority of India Ltd.) manages pipelines. Domestic production ~34 BCM/year; imports LNG (Qatar = largest supplier).
- Hydropower: ~47 GW installed; major projects: Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab/Himachal), Hirakud (Odisha), Tehri (Uttarakhand), Sardar Sarovar (Gujarat), Indira Sagar (MP). Pumped hydro storage important for grid balancing.
Renewable Energy:
- Solar: India's installed solar capacity = ~150 GW (March 2026); world's 3rd largest (record 45 GW added in FY2025-26). Key schemes: PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (1 crore rooftop solar households), PM-KUSUM (solar pumps for farmers). Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu = top solar states.
- Wind: ~56 GW installed (March 2026); India 4th globally; record 6.05 GW added FY2025-26. Offshore wind target: 30 GW by 2030.
- Target: 500 GW renewable installed capacity by 2030 (India's NDC commitment under Paris Agreement); non-fossil share has already crossed 53% of installed capacity (March 2026).
- National Total: ~533 GW total installed capacity (532.74 GW, CEA March 2026).
Nuclear Power:
- Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) + Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL)
- 7 nuclear power station sites, 25 reactor units operational: Tarapur (Maharashtra — oldest, 1969), RAPS (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan), MAPS (Madras, Tamil Nadu), KAPS (Kakrapar, Gujarat), KAIGA (Karnataka), NAPS (Narora, UP), Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu — Russia-aided, largest unit capacity); RAPP-7 (700 MW) commercially operational from April 15, 2025
- Total nuclear capacity: ~8,880 MW (~8.88 GW); target ~21,880 MW by 2031–32
India's Three-Stage Nuclear Programme (Homi J. Bhabha, 1954):
Designed to exploit India's abundant thorium reserves while working around limited uranium:
Stage 1 — Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs): Use natural uranium (U-238 + U-235) as fuel; produce plutonium-239 as byproduct. Status: Currently operating (all 7 NPPs are PHWRs or BWRs).
Stage 2 — Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs): Use plutonium (from Stage 1) + depleted uranium; breed more plutonium than consumed; also breed U-233 from thorium blanket. Status: Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu (500 MW) — achieved first criticality on April 6, 2026 (DAE official announcement); long-delayed milestone; not yet in commercial operation.
Stage 3 — Thorium-based Reactors: Use U-233 (bred in Stage 2) + thorium-232; India's vast thorium reserves (~320,000 tonnes = ~25% of world total) become the primary fuel. Status: Still decades away; AHWR (Advanced Heavy Water Reactor) design being developed at BARC.
Why thorium matters: India has among the world's largest thorium deposits in coastal monazite sands (Kerala, Tamil Nadu — Chavara, Manavalakurichi). Thorium is ~3-4x more abundant than uranium globally; cannot sustain a chain reaction directly but breeds fissile U-233.
[Additional] 3a. India's Critical Minerals Mission — KABIL, NCMM, J&K Lithium
The chapter covers India's mineral and power resources but lacks the critical minerals policy framework — the 30-mineral list (June 2023), KABIL's overseas acquisition mandate, the National Critical Mineral Mission (January 2025), and the J&K lithium discovery — all directly tested in UPSC GS3 (Minerals, Energy Security, Economy).
Key Terms — Critical Minerals:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Critical Minerals | Minerals essential for modern technology, clean energy transition, and defence where supply risk is high due to geological scarcity, geopolitical concentration, or limited domestic production; India's official list = 30 minerals (published June 2023 by Ministry of Mines) |
| KABIL | Khanij Bidesh India Limited — incorporated August 8, 2019; JV of NALCO (40%) + HCL (30%) + MECL (30%); mandate = acquire/develop critical mineral resources outside India for domestic supply security; under Ministry of Mines |
| NCMM | National Critical Mineral Mission — Cabinet approved January 29, 2025; outlay Rs. 34,300 crore over 7 years; covers domestic exploration, overseas acquisition, processing, recycling, and technology development |
| GSI | Geological Survey of India — mapped the J&K lithium discovery; under Ministry of Mines; India's premier geological mapping agency |
| MMDR Amendment 2021 | Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2021 — Central Government now auctions critical mineral blocks (previously state domain); expanded "captive mines" to allow 50% open-market sale |
[Additional] Critical Minerals — Full Policy Framework (GS3 — Minerals / Economy / Energy Security):
India's Critical Minerals list (June 2023):
- 30 minerals officially designated as critical: includes Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Vanadium, Tungsten, Graphite, Silicon, Titanium, Zirconium, Indium, Gallium, Germanium, Tellurium, Selenium, Beryllium, Chromium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Hafnium, Rhenium, Strontium, Tantalum, Bismuth, Potash, Phosphorus, Manganese, Copper, Antimony, Tin, and Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
- The list is modelled after similar lists by the EU, USA, UK, and Australia — enabling strategic alignments for supply chain resilience
Why critical minerals matter now (UPSC context):
- Clean energy transition requires: lithium (batteries), cobalt (EV batteries), silicon (solar cells), rare earths (wind turbine magnets)
- Defence requires: titanium (aerospace), tungsten (armour-piercing), germanium (optics/sensors)
- India's vulnerability: Heavily import-dependent — ~100% cobalt, ~85% lithium, ~100% REEs imported (mostly from China)
KABIL — India's overseas acquisition arm:
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Full form | Khanij Bidesh India Limited |
| Incorporated | August 8, 2019 |
| JV composition | NALCO 40% + HCL 30% + MECL 30% |
| Ministry | Ministry of Mines |
| Mandate | Identify, acquire, and develop critical mineral assets outside India |
| Argentina deal | 5 lithium brine blocks in Puna region (Catamarca, Jujuy, and Salta provinces) — signed 2021-22; exploration ongoing |
| Australia | MoU for cooperation on lithium, cobalt, and other critical minerals (under India-Australia ECTA framework) |
| Chile | NDA signed with ENAMI (Chile's state copper mining company) for lithium exploration cooperation |
J&K Lithium Discovery:
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Location | Salal-Haimana, Reasi district, Jammu & Kashmir |
| Announced | February 2023 by GSI (Geological Survey of India) |
| Resource estimate | 5.9 million tonnes (inferred — G3 category, the preliminary assessment stage) |
| Global significance | If confirmed = 7th largest lithium source globally |
| Historic significance | First-ever lithium discovery in India |
| Current status | Under detailed exploration (G2 and G1 level surveys); not yet in production |
| MMDR context | Under MMDR Amendment 2021, critical mineral blocks are auctioned by Central Government (NOT state government — unlike most other minerals) |
National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) — January 2025:
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Cabinet approval | January 29, 2025 |
| Total outlay | Rs. 34,300 crore over 7 years |
| Nodal ministry | Ministry of Mines |
| Key pillars | (1) Domestic exploration and mining; (2) Overseas acquisition (via KABIL and PSUs); (3) Processing and refining capacity; (4) Recycling of critical minerals from e-waste; (5) R&D and technology development |
| Target | Reduce import dependency on critical minerals; build supply chain resilience for EVs, solar, defence |
MMDR Amendment 2021 — critical mineral provisions:
| Change | Impact |
|---|---|
| Central Government auctions critical mineral blocks | States receive royalty revenue but lose auctioning control — enables faster, large-scale auctions |
| 50% open-market sale from captive mines | Captive mine operators (who mine for own use) can sell up to 50% of output in open market — increases supply |
| Automatic renewal | Mining leases for critical minerals can be automatically renewed |
India's import sources (strategic risk):
| Mineral | Major Import Source | Risk |
|---|---|---|
| Lithium | Australia, Chile, Argentina (no domestic production yet) | Geopolitical risk; shipping routes |
| Cobalt | Democratic Republic of Congo (via China processing) | Very high supply concentration |
| REEs | China (~85%) | Strategic risk — China restricted exports 2023 |
| Graphite | China | Restricted by China in 2023 |
UPSC synthesis: Critical Minerals = GS3 Economy + Energy Security. Key exam facts: India's list = 30 minerals = published June 2023 = Ministry of Mines; KABIL = incorporated Aug 8, 2019 = NALCO(40%) + HCL(30%) + MECL(30%) = Ministry of Mines = acquires assets OUTSIDE India; J&K lithium = 5.9 million tonnes (inferred) = Salal-Haimana, Reasi = announced Feb 2023 = first in India = would be 7th largest globally; NCMM = Cabinet approved Jan 29, 2025 = Rs. 34,300 crore = 7 years = Ministry of Mines; MMDR 2021 = Central Government auctions critical mineral blocks (NOT states); captive mines can now sell 50% in open market. Prelims trap: KABIL is under Ministry of Mines (NOT Ministry of External Affairs — KABIL is a PSU JV for mining, not diplomacy); KABIL's mandate is to acquire assets outside India (NOT domestic — domestic exploration is GSI's and MECL's job; KABIL is specifically for overseas assets); J&K lithium = 5.9 million tonnes is inferred (G3 category — NOT proven/indicated; the number may change with detailed surveys); MMDR 2021 transferred critical mineral block auctioning to Central Government (NOT to KABIL — KABIL handles overseas; Central Government conducts the auctions for domestic blocks).
[Additional] 3b. India's Semiconductor Mission — Micron, CG Semi, Tata Dholera
The chapter covers India's conventional and renewable power resources but lacks the semiconductor manufacturing revolution — the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), the three approved fab/ATMP plants, and India's strategy to reduce import dependence on chips — tested in UPSC GS3 (Science & Technology, Economy, Industries).
Key Terms — Semiconductor Mission:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) | Nodal agency for India's semiconductor manufacturing push; set up as Independent Business Division within Digital India Corporation under Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY); total incentive budget = Rs. 76,000 crore |
| Fab (Fabrication Plant) | Front-end chip manufacturing facility where silicon wafers are processed to create integrated circuits (ICs); requires ultra-clean Class-1 cleanrooms; multi-billion dollar investment |
| ATMP | Assembly, Test, Mark and Pack — back-end semiconductor packaging operations; less capital-intensive than Fabs but equally strategic for supply chain |
| OSAT | Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test — semiconductor packaging and testing done by independent companies for multiple chip designers |
| Process Node | Size of transistors on a chip (28nm, 5nm etc.); smaller node = more transistors per chip = more powerful; India's Tata-PSMC Fab starts at 28nm |
| ISM 2.0 | Second phase of India Semiconductor Mission announced 2026 — deepens ecosystem, adds new verticals |
[Additional] India Semiconductor Mission — Micron, CG Semi, Tata Dholera (GS3 — Science & Technology / Economy):
India Semiconductor Mission — overview:
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Nodal agency | India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) — under MeitY |
| Total incentive | Rs. 76,000 crore (up to 50% of eligible capital expenditure) |
| Coverage | Silicon fabs, compound semiconductor fabs, ATMP/OSAT units, chip design |
| ISM 2.0 | Announced 2026 for second phase expansion |
| Total projects approved (Dec 2025) | 10 projects across 6 states; total investment = Rs. 1.60 lakh crore |
Three major approved plants:
Plant 1 — Micron Technology (Sanand, Gujarat):
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Type | ATMP (Assembly, Test, Mark and Pack) — memory packaging |
| Location | Sanand, Gujarat |
| Company | Micron Technology, USA (world's 3rd largest memory chip maker) |
| Investment | Rs. 22,500 crore+ |
| Status | OPERATIONAL — inaugurated by PM Modi on February 28, 2026 |
| Products | DRAM and NAND flash memory modules for smartphones, data centres, AI, automotive |
| Significance | First proposal approved under ISM; first operational semiconductor facility of current ISM cycle |
Plant 2 — CG Semi (Sanand, Gujarat):
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Type | OSAT (Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test) |
| Location | Sanand, Gujarat |
| JV Partners | CG Power & Industrial Solutions (India) + Renesas Electronics (Japan) + Stars Microelectronics (Thailand) |
| Investment | Rs. 7,600 crore (~USD 870 million) |
| Status | G1 pilot line inaugurated August 28, 2025 |
| Capacity (G1 pilot) | 0.5 million chip units/day |
| Capacity (G2 scale-up) | 14.5–15 million units/day |
| Jobs | 5,000+ |
Plant 3 — Tata Electronics (Dholera, Gujarat):
| Parameter | Data |
|---|---|
| Type | Front-end Silicon Fabrication — India's first silicon fab of the current era |
| Location | Dholera Special Investment Region (SIR), Gujarat |
| Technology partner | Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (PSMC), Taiwan |
| Investment | Rs. 91,000 crore (~USD 11 billion) — largest of the three |
| Process nodes | 28nm, 40nm, 55nm, 90nm, 110nm |
| Capacity | Up to 50,000 wafers/month |
| Status | Under construction — ~50% complete as of April 2026 |
| First silicon target | Late 2026 (trial/pilot production) |
| Full production | 2028 |
| Tata-ASML MoU | Signed May 16, 2026 during PM Modi's visit to The Hague — ASML (Netherlands) = world's only EUV lithography machine maker; critical for advanced fab operations |
Why semiconductors matter (GS3 Mains angle):
- Chips are the "new oil" — embedded in smartphones, EVs, defence systems, medical devices, AI hardware
- India imports ~USD 25–30 billion of semiconductors annually — largely from China/Taiwan supply chain
- A single chip shortage (like COVID-era 2021 auto chip crisis) can shut down entire industries
- ISM strategy: Start with back-end (ATMP/OSAT — lower risk) → move to front-end (Fab — higher technology); Dholera Fab represents the front-end ambition
Semiconductor types in India's approved plants:
| Type | Plants | Market |
|---|---|---|
| DRAM + NAND memory | Micron (ATMP) | Smartphones, data centres, AI |
| Microcontrollers, power semiconductors | CG Semi (OSAT) | Automotive, consumer electronics |
| Logic ICs, display drivers, MCUs | Tata (Fab, 28nm) | Automotive, AI, 5G, HPC |
UPSC synthesis: ISM = GS3 Science & Technology + Economy. Key exam facts: ISM = under MeitY = nodal body = India Semiconductor Mission (within Digital India Corporation) = incentive Rs. 76,000 crore (up to 50% capex subsidy); Micron = ATMP = Sanand, Gujarat = operational Feb 28, 2026 = DRAM/NAND memory; CG Semi = OSAT = Sanand, Gujarat = JV of CG Power + Renesas + Stars Micro = pilot inaugurated Aug 28, 2025; Tata Electronics = Fab = Dholera, Gujarat = partner PSMC (Taiwan) = 28nm = Rs. 91,000 crore = first silicon late 2026 = full production 2028; Tata-ASML MoU = May 16, 2026. Prelims trap: ISM is under MeitY (NOT Ministry of Science & Technology — MeitY = Ministry of Electronics and IT handles ISM; Science & Technology Ministry handles CSIR, DST etc.); Tata Electronics Fab is at Dholera, Gujarat (NOT Assam — Tata also has electronics assembly in Assam/Hosur but the fab is at Dholera SIR, Gujarat); Micron's facility type = ATMP (NOT a Fab — Micron is packaging/testing; Tata Dholera is the Fab); PSMC is from Taiwan (NOT Japan — CG Semi's Renesas partner is Japanese; PSMC the Fab technology partner is Taiwanese); ISM incentive = Rs. 76,000 crore (NOT Rs. 1.97 lakh crore — Rs. 1.97 lakh crore is for 14-sector PLI; semiconductor ISM has a separate Rs. 76,000 crore dedicated budget).
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- Digboi = India's OLDEST oilfield (1889); Mumbai High = India's LARGEST oilfield (offshore)
- Jharia = largest coal field; Raniganj = OLDEST coal field (not largest)
- Hematite iron ore = 60-70% Fe (best commercially mined); Magnetite = highest Fe (~72%) but less common commercially
- India's thorium reserves = ~25% of world total; NOT uranium
- PFBR at Kalpakkam achieved first criticality April 6, 2026 — Stage 2 of three-stage nuclear programme; not yet in commercial operation
- India's crude oil import dependence: ~88–89% (FY2024-25, all-time high) — NOT 85%
- Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu) is Russia-aided; NOT Bhilai (which is a steel plant, also Russia-aided)
Mains angles:
- India's energy security — import dependence for oil and coal vs renewable potential
- Three-stage nuclear programme — strategic importance of thorium
- 500 GW renewable target — feasibility, land requirements, grid stability challenges
- Critical minerals (lithium, cobalt) for energy transition — India's import dependence
Practice Questions
Prelims:
Which of the following is the site of India's oldest oil refinery?
(a) Barauni
(b) Koyali
(c) Digboi
(d) HaldiaWith reference to India's three-stage nuclear power programme, which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Stage 1 uses thorium as fuel
(b) Stage 2 uses plutonium from Stage 1 reactors to breed more plutonium and U-233 from thorium
(c) Stage 3 directly uses natural uranium
(d) India has already completed Stage 3Khetri mines, often seen in news, are associated with which mineral?
(a) Iron ore
(b) Gold
(c) Copper
(d) Manganese
Mains:
- Discuss the significance of India's three-stage nuclear power programme in ensuring long-term energy security. What are the challenges in its implementation? (CSE Mains 2018, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)
- India's solar energy sector has seen rapid growth. Examine the factors responsible for this and the challenges that remain in achieving the 500 GW renewable target by 2030. (CSE Mains 2023, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)
