Chapter 2: Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

UPSC GS3 — Land Degradation Causes:

• Soil erosion by water: Sheet erosion (gentle slopes), rill erosion (small channels), gully erosion (deep channels — Chambal ravines/badlands of MP/UP/Rajasthan)
• Wind erosion: Thar Desert; desertification — advancing ~1 km/year in some regions
• Waterlogging: Punjab and Haryana — excess canal irrigation raises water table; root zone anaerobic; affects ~8.5 million hectares
• Salinization/Alkalinization: Irrigation without drainage → salts accumulate in topsoil — "usar" or "reh" soils in UP; affects ~6.7 million hectares
• Shifting cultivation (Jhum): NE India — slash and burn; soil exposed to erosion; fertility drops quickly after 2-3 years
• Overgrazing: Common land degradation; destroys vegetative cover; ~0.69 million sq km affected
• Mining and quarrying: Open-cast mining leaves barren pits; acid mine drainage; Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa

Land Reforms in India:

1. Zamindari Abolition (1950s): Intermediaries removed; land rights to actual tillers
2. Tenancy reforms: Security of tenure, fair rent (~25% of produce), right to purchase
3. Land ceiling laws: Maximum land any family can hold; surplus redistributed to landless
4. Bhoodan Movement (Vinoba Bhave, 1951): Voluntary donation of land by wealthy to landless; ~4.4 million acres donated
5. Operation Barga (West Bengal, 1978): Registration of sharecroppers; ensured security of tenure

UPSC GS3 — Water Scarcity and Management:

India's Water Balance:

• Annual precipitation: ~4,000 BCM (billion cubic metres)
• Utilisable water (surface + groundwater): ~1,123 BCM
• Surface water utilizable: ~690 BCM; Groundwater: ~433 BCM
• India is the world's largest groundwater extractor — ~250 BCM/year (25% of global extraction)

Water Stress Thresholds (Falkenmark Index):

• Water Scarcity: < 1,000 m³/capita/year
• Water Stress: < 1,700 m³/capita/year
• India's per capita availability: ~1,486 m³/year (2021) — already in water stressed category

Groundwater Crisis:

• 21 major Indian cities were projected to exhaust groundwater by 2020 (NITI Aayog CWMI report, 2018); a separate projection in the same report warns 40% of India's population may lack drinking water access by 2030
• CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) classifies blocks as: Safe, Semi-critical, Critical, Over-exploited
• Over-exploited blocks: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan have highest groundwater over-extraction

Water Conservation in India:

• Jal Shakti Ministry (formed 2019, merged Jal Sansadhan + Drinking Water/Sanitation)
• Jal Jeevan Mission: Functional household tap connections (FHTC) to all rural households; original target 2024, extended to December 2028 (Union Budget 2025-26); ~81% rural households covered as of 2026
• AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation): Urban water and sewerage
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): "Har Khet Ko Paani, More Crop Per Drop"
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: Groundwater management in water-stressed areas (7 states)

[Additional] ISFR 2023 — Complete Data (GS3 — Environment / Biodiversity):

National forest and tree cover (ISFR 2023 — 18th edition, released December 2024):

Change from ISFR 2021:

Top states by absolute forest cover area:

Top states/UTs by % of geographical area under forest cover:

Key ecological findings:

• 8 states/UTs have more than 75% of their geographical area under forest cover
• 19 states/UTs individually exceed the NDC 33% target — but the national aggregate is only 25.17%
• NE India remains the most forested macro-region
• Scrub (degraded open forest): 42,438 sq km (NOT counted as forest cover)

Carbon stock (ISFR 2023):

Mangrove cover — special concern:

• Total mangrove cover (2023): 4,992 sq km
• Change from 2021: DECREASED by 7.43 sq km
• India's mangrove coverage = ~3% of world's total mangrove area
• Top 3 mangrove states: West Bengal (Sundarbans, ~2,114 sq km), Gujarat (~1,177 sq km), Andaman & Nicobar Islands (~617 sq km)
• Despite overall forest cover increase, the mangrove decrease is a concern for coastal biodiversity and storm surge protection

Why India's national average is only 25.17% despite many states exceeding 33%: The 33% NDC target applies nationally. The most densely populated and economically active states (UP, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan) have very low forest cover — dragging the national average down even though NE and island states have >75% coverage.

UPSC synthesis: ISFR 2023 = GS3 Environment. Key exam facts: ISFR 2023 = 18th edition = released December 2024 = by FSI (Forest Survey of India) under MoEF&CC; total forest cover = 7,15,343 sq km = 21.76%; forest + tree cover = 8,27,357 sq km = 25.17% (NDC 33% target NOT met nationally); net change from 2021 = +1,445 sq km (forest +156 + tree +1,289); mangrove DECREASED by 7.43 sq km = now 4,992 sq km; largest forest state by area = Madhya Pradesh (77,073 sq km); highest % = Lakshadweep (91.33%); total carbon stock = 7,285.5 MT = additional sink since 2005 = 2.29 bn t CO₂e (NDC target = 2.5–3.0 bn t by 2030). Prelims trap: Forest cover = 21.76% (NOT 24% or 25% — the 25.17% figure includes tree cover OUTSIDE forests; pure forest cover is 21.76%); NDC 33% target = NOT yet met (India is at 25.17% combined forest + tree cover; frequently misrepresented as "met"); mangroves decreased even though total forest increased (the two trends go opposite — total forest slightly up, mangroves down by 7.43 sq km); largest forest state by area = MP (NOT Arunachal Pradesh — AP has higher % but lower absolute area because AP's total geographical area is smaller than MP's).

[Additional] Jal Jeevan Mission — Full Framework (GS2 — Governance / GS3 — Infrastructure):

JJM — core parameters:

Coverage progress — as of January 2026:

States most lagging (lowest coverage):

Key implementation features:

• 55 LPCD minimum supply standard — also covers schools, anganwadis, health centres, GP buildings
• Water Quality Testing Labs: 2,000+ labs set up; 5 lakh Field Testing Kits distributed
• Gram Panchayat role: VWSCs (Village Water and Sanitation Committees) prepare VAPs; post-completion, GPs own and maintain the infrastructure
• Jal Sakhis / Community Water Operators: Women trained to test water quality using field kits — socioeconomic empowerment angle
• Functionality gap (critical): A government survey (2024) found only ~75% of "connected" households receive regular, safe, adequate supply — connections ≠ functional water

JJM vs AMRUT 2.0 — UPSC distinction:

UPSC synthesis: JJM = GS2 Governance + GS3 Infrastructure. Key exam facts: JJM launched = August 15, 2019 = Ministry of Jal Shakti = "Har Ghar Jal"; baseline = 3.23 crore HHs = 16.72%; total HHs = 19.36 crore; FHTCs as of Jan 2026 = 15.79 crore = 81.57%; revised deadline = December 2028; total budget = Rs. 3.60 lakh crore; fund sharing = 90:10 (NE/Himalayan states); supply standard = 55 LPCD; UP most lagging = ~13.86%; AMRUT 2.0 = urban water = under MoHUA (NOT Jal Shakti). Prelims trap: JJM is for rural areas only (NOT urban — urban = AMRUT 2.0; mixing these two is the most common error); supply standard = 55 LPCD (NOT 40 LPCD — 40 LPCD was an older WHO/government guideline; JJM specifies 55 LPCD); original deadline was 2024 but has been extended to December 2028 (answer options may use 2024 as correct — that is now wrong); fund sharing for NE/Himalayan states = 90:10 Centre:State (NOT 50:50 — 50:50 is for general states; NE/Himalayan states get 90% from Centre).