BharatNotes Note: This chapter was removed from the NCERT curriculum in the 2022 rationalization. Retained here as tribal history (Ahoms, Gonds, Bhils) is relevant to UPSC GS1 and GS2 (tribal communities, Northeast India history, forest rights).
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
Major Tribal Communities of Medieval India
| Tribe | Region | Period | Notable |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ahoms | Assam (upper Brahmaputra valley) | 1228–1826 CE | Founded kingdom lasting 600 years; defeated Mughals; resisted Aurangzeb's general Mir Jumla |
| Gonds | Central India (MP, Chhattisgarh, Telangana) | Medieval period | Large tribal kingdom (Gondwana); integrated with Rajput clans; some became rajas |
| Bhils | Rajasthan, MP, Gujarat | Medieval–modern | Forest-dwelling; controlled Aravalli passes; some served in Rajput armies |
| Banjaras | Across India (nomadic) | Medieval | Long-distance trading community; transported grain and cattle; extensive network |
| Mughals | Central Asia → India | Mughal era | Technically a nomadic/semi-nomadic people who built a settled empire |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
Tribal vs Settled Society — The Key Distinction
Two social orders existed simultaneously in medieval India:
Varna-based society (settled, agrarian):
- Hierarchical: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra + untouchables
- Based on caste — birth determines occupation and social status
- Lived in villages and towns; paid revenue to kings
- Followed Sanskrit texts, rituals, temple religion
Tribal/non-varna society:
- Organised by kinship (clan/lineage) — not caste
- Egalitarian within the tribe — no caste discrimination
- Lived in forests, hills, river valleys; practised shifting cultivation, hunting, gathering
- Had their own chiefs, customary laws, deities (animism, nature worship)
- Did NOT always pay revenue to kings — often autonomous
Interaction: These two systems were not completely separate:
- Tribal chiefs sometimes became "Rajputs" by adopting varna identity and Hindu practices
- Some tribes cultivated land → became peasants integrated into agrarian economy
- Some tribal communities provided specialised services to settled society (forest goods, trade routes, military service)
- The boundary was fluid — movement in both directions over centuries
The Ahoms — Northeast India's Great Kingdom
UPSC GS1 — Ahom Kingdom:
The Ahoms are one of India's most remarkable examples of successful state-building by a tribal people.
Origins: The Ahom people migrated from present-day Myanmar (Shan people of Southeast Asian origin) to upper Assam in 1228 CE, led by Sukaphaa. They settled in the Brahmaputra valley.
State building:
- Originally tribal with a chief (swargdev); gradually built a formal kingdom
- Adopted Hinduism and Assamese language over centuries while maintaining distinct identity
- Paik system: Forced labour system — all adult males had to serve the state for a certain period each year (military service, construction, cultivation of state lands)
- Elaborate bureaucracy: ministers, revenue officials, military commanders
Military achievements:
- Fought and won against Mughal invasions 17 times — most famously at the Battle of Saraighat (1671) where Ahom general Lachit Borphukan decisively defeated Aurangzeb's force led by Raja Ram Singh
- Lachit Borphukan: National hero of Assam; the Lachit Borphukan Gold Medal is awarded annually to the best passing-out NDA cadet (India's highest military academy award)
- Used riverine warfare, geography, and guerrilla tactics to neutralise Mughal cavalry advantage
Decline: Weakened by internal succession wars; Burmese invasions (1817–1819, three times) devastated the kingdom. Assam signed the Treaty of Yandabo (1826) with the British — formally ending the Ahom kingdom and bringing Assam under British control.
Cultural legacy:
- Bihu festival: Most important Assamese festival; has Ahom origins (harvest celebration)
- Ahom script: The Ahoms maintained their own script and chronicles (Buranjis)
- Majuli Island (Brahmaputra): World's largest river island; centre of Ahom-era Vaishnavism (Sattras founded by Shankaradeva)
The Gonds — Central India's Forest Kingdom
Gond Kingdoms (Gondwana):
The Gonds were one of India's largest tribal communities — inhabiting the forests of central India (modern Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Odisha).
State formation:
- By the 15th–16th centuries, Gond chiefs had established large kingdoms ("garhas") — each controlling a defined forest territory with a fort as the centre
- The Gond kingdom of Garha Mandla (modern MP) was one of the most powerful — ruled over 70,000 villages according to Akbarnama
Durgawati — the warrior queen:
- Rani Durgawati: Gond queen of Garha Mandla (1550–1564 CE)
- Married into the Gond royal family (Chandel Rajput origin)
- After her husband's death, she ruled as regent for her son and expanded the kingdom
- Akbar's general Asaf Khan attacked Gondwana (1564) — Rani Durgawati fought bravely but was defeated; she killed herself rather than be captured
- A national symbol of tribal resistance; Rani Durgawati University (Jabalpur) named after her
Integration with Rajput society:
- Gond chiefs who adopted varna practices and Hinduism were sometimes accepted as Rajputs
- Inter-marriage with Rajput families: Durgawati herself came from a Chandel Rajput family
- This shows how the boundary between tribal and settled society was negotiable
Nomadic Communities
Banjaras — the great traders of medieval India:
Banjaras were a nomadic trading community who traversed all of India with large caravans (known as Tanda).
What they transported:
- Grain (especially important — armies needed grain; banjaras supplied armies on the move)
- Cattle, salt, cloth, metal goods
- Connected surplus-producing regions to deficit regions
Organisation:
- A Tanda could have thousands of bullocks and hundreds of traders
- Led by a Naik (chief) who negotiated with local rulers and ensured safe passage
- Paid tolls to local rulers in exchange for right of way
Mughal armies: Mughal campaigns depended heavily on Banjara grain carriers — without them, feeding large armies in unfamiliar territory was impossible.
Modern identity: Banjaras are today classified as a Scheduled Tribe in several states. Their distinctive embroidery (mirror work, colourful geometric patterns — "Lambani embroidery" in Karnataka) is internationally recognised as a craft form; Lambani embroidery received GI tag and is practised by Banjara women in northern Karnataka.
Other nomadic communities:
- Gaddi shepherds (Himachal Pradesh): Move between high alpine pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter
- Raikas/Rabaaris (Rajasthan): Camel herders; move across Rajasthan and Gujarat seasonally
- Van Gujjars (UP, Uttarakhand): Buffalo herders in forested Himalayan foothills
Why Tribal Lands Were Valuable
Forest resources and tribal communities:
Medieval kingdoms depended on forests for:
- War elephants: Forest-dwelling tribals were the only people who could capture, tame, and supply elephants — essential for medieval warfare
- Timber: Ship-building (Malabar teak), palace construction, siege weapons
- Medicinal herbs and forest products: Resin, honey, beeswax, lac (used for dyeing)
- Trade routes: Tribal communities controlled mountain passes and forest paths — they taxed or guided traffic through their territories
Tribal response to state expansion:
- Some welcomed state authority (access to trade, titles, prestige goods)
- Some resisted fiercely (forest provided natural defence; knowledge of terrain was an advantage)
- The Bhils of Rajasthan controlled Aravalli passes — Rajput rulers needed their cooperation for trade and military movements; Bhil chiefs sometimes sat beside Rajput rulers at coronations (symbolising the legitimacy of forest peoples)
[Additional] 7a. Moidams — Ahom Mound-Burial System, UNESCO WHS 2024 (India's 43rd)
The chapter covers the Ahom kingdom's 600-year history but has zero coverage of the Moidams — the royal burial mounds of the Ahom dynasty at Charaideo, Assam — which were inscribed as India's 43rd UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 26, 2024, at the 46th WHC session hosted in New Delhi. The Moidams are simultaneously the first cultural World Heritage Site from Northeast India, making this a high-priority current affairs + history intersection topic for UPSC.
Key Terms — Moidams:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Moidam | Tai-Ahom royal burial mound (also spelled "maidam"); from the Tai-Ahom language, roughly meaning "home-for-spirit" or "burial of the dead"; constructed to inter the remains of Ahom royalty and nobility along with grave goods |
| Charaideo | The first capital of the Ahom kingdom; the royal necropolis where the most important and best-preserved moidams are located; in Charaideo district, Assam (~28–30 km east of Sivasagar) |
| Tak | The hollow underground burial vault or chamber within a moidam — built of brick, stone, or earth with brick flooring; contains a raised platform where the body was placed (in a wooden coffin) along with grave goods (horses, elephants, food, weapons, and sometimes retainers) |
| Ga-Moidam | The hemispherical earthen mound heaped over the Tak (burial vault) — the most visible external element of the moidam |
| Garh | The octagonal enclosure wall (dwarf brick wall) surrounding the entire moidam structure; the octagonal shape symbolises the Tai-Ahom cosmological universe |
| Chow-Chali | An open pavilion/shrine at the top of the royal moidam earthen mound — present in moidams of kings and important royalty; used for ritual observance |
| Me-Dam-Me-Phi | The annual Ahom ancestor-worship festival observed on January 31 each year; the Tai-Ahom religious practice of honouring royal ancestors — moidams are the physical counterpart of this living tradition |
[Additional] Moidams — UNESCO Inscription 2024, Structure, History, and Significance (GS1 — History/Art & Culture):
UNESCO inscription:
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| UNESCO name | "Moidams — the Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty" |
| Inscribed at | 46th Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee |
| Session dates | July 21–31, 2024 |
| Date of inscription | July 26, 2024 |
| Venue | New Delhi, India (India hosted the 46th WHC session) |
| UNESCO List No. | 1711 |
| India's count | India's 43rd UNESCO World Heritage Site |
| Regional distinction | First cultural World Heritage Site from Northeast India |
| UNESCO criteria | (iii) — Moidams bear witness to 600 years of Tai-Ahom royal funerary architecture and customs from the 13th to 19th centuries CE; (iv) — Outstanding example of a Tai-Ahom necropolis representing Tai-Ahom funerary traditions and associated cosmologies — this landscape was sculpted according to cosmological beliefs over ~600 years |
The site — scale and location:
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| Location | Charaideo, Charaideo district, Assam (~28–30 km east of Sivasagar) |
| Charaideo's significance | First capital of the Ahom kingdom; chosen as the royal burial ground |
| Moidams at Charaideo | 90 moidams of varying sizes — best preserved and most representative |
| Total moidams in Assam | 386 moidams explored so far by the Directorate of Archaeology, spread from Tinsukia district to Nagaon district |
Structure of a moidam — four elements:
| Element | Description |
|---|---|
| 1. Tak (burial vault) | Underground hollow chamber of brick/stone; raised platform at centre; body placed in ornate wooden coffin; grave goods interred (horses, elephants, food, weapons, sometimes retainers) |
| 2. Ga-Moidam (earthen mound) | Hemispherical earthen mound heaped over the Tak — the visually dominant element |
| 3. Garh (octagonal wall) | Dwarf octagonal brick enclosure wall surrounding the entire structure; octagonal shape = symbol of the Tai-Ahom universe |
| 4. Chow-Chali (pavilion/shrine) | Open pavilion at the mound's apex — present in royal moidams; used for ancestor worship rituals |
Together: Underground vault (underworld) + earthen mound (earth) + octagonal enclosure (cosmos) = a complete cosmological statement in built form
History of the necropolis:
- Ahom people migrated from Mong-Mao (present-day Yunnan/Shan region, Myanmar border) c. 1215 CE under Chau-lung Siu-ka-pha (also called Sukaphaa)
- Siu-ka-pha established Charaideo as first capital
- Upon Siu-ka-pha's death in 1268 CE, he was buried at Charaideo in traditional Tai rituals — establishing the royal necropolis
- The site was used for approximately 600 years (13th–19th centuries CE)
- Burial practice evolved: Early Ahom kings = inhumation (full-body burial with retainers, horses, elephants); later (17th–18th centuries) under Hinduisation = cremation, with ashes placed in the vault
- The Tai-Ahom cultural connection: Ahoms are a Tai people, related to Shan groups of Myanmar and other Tai groups of mainland Southeast Asia — their burial tradition connects to a wider Tai cultural world across Southeast Asia
Management:
- Directorate of Archaeology (DOA), Government of Assam — primary day-to-day management
- Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) — conservation, structural stabilisation, excavation approval
- Site Management Plan: 2023–2030
UPSC synthesis: Moidams = GS1 History + Art & Culture + current affairs. Key exam facts: UNESCO = July 26, 2024 = 46th WHC session = hosted in New Delhi = UNESCO List No. 1711 = India's 43rd WHS = first cultural WHS from Northeast India; location = Charaideo, Assam (~28–30 km east of Sivasagar) = first capital of Ahom kingdom; moidams at Charaideo = 90; total in Assam = 386; four elements = Tak (burial vault) + Ga-Moidam (earthen mound) + Garh (octagonal wall = Tai universe symbol) + Chow-Chali (shrine/pavilion); 600-year use (13th–19th century); early = inhumation; later = cremation + ashes in vault; annual ritual = Me-Dam-Me-Phi (January 31); criteria = (iii) and (iv). Prelims trap: Moidams = inscribed in 2024 (NOT 2023 or 2022); India's 43rd WHS (44th = Maratha Military Landscapes, July 2025); the 46th WHC session was hosted in New Delhi (NOT New York or Paris); criteria = (iii) and (iv) (NOT (i) which is for unique artistic creation); Moidams is the first cultural WHS from Northeast India (Kaziranga NP and Manas NP are natural WHSs from Northeast India — already inscribed earlier).
[Additional] 7b. Constitutional and Legal Framework for Tribal Rights — Fifth/Sixth Schedule, PESA, and FRA
The chapter describes tribal communities' relationship with forests and their conflict with settled/state authority, but has no coverage of the constitutional and legal framework that governs tribal governance and forest rights in India today. The Fifth Schedule, Sixth Schedule, PESA Act 1996, Forest Rights Act 2006, and PM JANMAN scheme are all recurring GS2 (Governance / Constitutional Law / Social Justice) topics directly linked to the historical tribal-forest relationship this chapter describes.
Key Terms — Tribal Rights Framework:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) | Provides for administration of Scheduled Areas — tribal-majority areas in 10 states (AP, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, HP, Jharkhand, MP, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Telangana); the Governor reports on scheduled area administration; Tribes Advisory Council (TAC) advises the Governor; laws may be adapted or excluded for scheduled areas |
| Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2), 275(1)) | Provides for Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) in tribal areas of 4 northeastern states — Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura; gives ADCs legislative, judicial, executive, and financial powers (much stronger autonomy than Fifth Schedule) |
| PESA Act 1996 | Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 — extends Panchayati Raj (Part IX of Constitution) to Fifth Schedule areas with modifications; makes the Gram Sabha the nucleus of tribal self-governance; enacted following the Bhuria Committee Report (1994) |
| Forest Rights Act 2006 | The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 — corrects "historical injustice" by vesting forest rights in forest-dwelling STs (FDSTs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs); two main categories: Individual Forest Rights (IFR) and Community Forest Rights (CFR) |
| Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR) | The most transformative component of FRA 2006 — recognises the Gram Sabha's right to govern, manage, conserve, and sustainably use an entire forest area within the traditional/customary boundaries of the village (including reserved/protected forests); Gram Sabha constitutes a CFRMC (5–11 members; at least 1/3 women) |
| PVTGs | Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups — 75 communities across 18 states + 1 UT; criteria: pre-agricultural technology + stagnant/declining population + very low literacy + geographical isolation + subsistence economy; nodal ministry = Ministry of Tribal Affairs |
| PM JANMAN | Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan — launched November 15, 2023 on Janjatiya Gaurav Divas (Birsa Munda's birth anniversary); targets all 75 PVTGs; total outlay Rs 24,104 crore (2023-24 to 2025-26); 11 critical services in PVTG habitations; nodal ministry = Ministry of Tribal Affairs |
[Additional] Fifth/Sixth Schedule, PESA Act, FRA, and PM JANMAN — Constitutional and Legal Framework for Tribal Rights (GS2 — Governance / Constitutional Law / Social Justice):
Fifth Schedule vs Sixth Schedule — the key distinction:
| Feature | Fifth Schedule | Sixth Schedule |
|---|---|---|
| Constitutional Article | Article 244(1) | Articles 244(2) and 275(1) |
| States covered | 10 states (AP, CG, GJ, HP, JH, MP, MH, OD, RJ, TG) | 4 northeastern states (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura) |
| Governance mechanism | Tribes Advisory Council (TAC) — advisory to the Governor | Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) — legislative + judicial + executive + financial powers |
| Autonomy level | Moderate — laws can be adapted but state government governs | Much stronger — ADCs legislate, judge, and administer independently |
| ADC count | — | 10 ADCs across the 4 states |
Key ADCs (Sixth Schedule):
- Assam: Bodoland Territorial Council, Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council, Dima Hasao ADC
- Meghalaya: Garo Hills ADC, Jaintia Hills ADC, Khasi Hills ADC
- Mizoram: Chakma ADC, Lai ADC, Mara ADC
- Tripura: Tripura Tribal Areas ADC
PESA Act 1996 — Gram Sabha as nucleus of tribal governance:
| Key PESA Gram Sabha Power | Detail |
|---|---|
| Land acquisition consultation | Mandatory consultation before land acquisition in Scheduled Areas and before resettlement/rehabilitation |
| Minor forest produce | Ownership and management of minor forest produce (collected by the community) |
| Traditional dispute resolution | Customary law and practices to be preserved; Gram Sabha may resolve local disputes |
| Money-lending control | Regulate money-lending to Scheduled Tribes within the area |
| Land alienation | Power to prevent alienation of tribal land; restoration of unlawfully alienated land |
| Local markets | Control over village markets |
| Intoxicants | Regulation/prohibition of sale/consumption of intoxicants |
- Based on: Bhuria Committee Report (1994)
- Nodal ministry: Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR)
- Covers same 10 states as Fifth Schedule
Forest Rights Act 2006 — two main rights categories:
| Category | What It Covers |
|---|---|
| Individual Forest Rights (IFR) | Right to cultivate forest land actually under cultivation (cut-off: December 13, 2005); right to live in and use forest land; right to own, use, and dispose of minor forest produce collected from forest land — held by the household |
| Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR) | Gram Sabha's right to govern, manage, conserve, and sustainably use an entire forest area within the traditional/customary boundaries of the village (including reserved forests and protected forests); Gram Sabha constitutes a CFRMC (5–11 members; at least 1/3 women) to manage; Gram Sabha has supreme authority — Forest Department facilitates, not regulates |
Implementation status (2024-25):
- ~42.5 lakh claims received (IFR + CFR) nationally
- Titles distributed to approximately 46% of applicants
- CFRR is the most under-implemented component — significant state-level variation
PM JANMAN (2023) — targeting PVTGs:
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| Full name | Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan |
| Launched | November 15, 2023 — on Janjatiya Gaurav Divas (Birsa Munda's birth anniversary) |
| Target | All 75 PVTG communities across 18 states and 1 UT (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) |
| Total outlay | Rs 24,104 crore (Centre: Rs 15,336 crore + State: Rs 8,768 crore) |
| Duration | 2023-24 to 2025-26 |
| Focus | Saturation of 11 critical services in PVTG habitations: housing (PMAY), drinking water, roads, mobile medical units, Anganwadi centres, hostels, boarding schools, mobile connectivity, electricity, and livelihood/skill development |
| Implementation | Ministry of Tribal Affairs + 9 line Ministries/Departments + state governments |
PVTGs — key facts:
- 75 PVTGs across 18 states + 1 UT
- Origin: Dhebar Commission (1960–61) identified the need; first listed in Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–79) as "Primitive Tribal Groups"
- Criteria: Pre-agricultural technology + stagnant/declining population + very low literacy + geographical isolation + subsistence economy
UPSC synthesis: Tribal rights framework = GS2 Governance + Constitutional Law. Key exam facts: Fifth Schedule = Article 244(1) = 10 states = TAC (advisory) + Governor has adaptation powers; Sixth Schedule = Articles 244(2) + 275(1) = 4 NE states = 10 ADCs (Bodoland, Karbi Anglong, Dima Hasao, Garo Hills, Jaintia Hills, Khasi Hills, TTAADC, Chakma, Lai, Mara); PESA = 1996 = Fifth Schedule areas = Gram Sabha as nucleus = based on Bhuria Committee 1994 = nodal ministry = MoPR; FRA = 2006 = "historical injustice" corrected = IFR (household, cut-off Dec 13 2005) + CFRR (entire forest area, Gram Sabha supreme); 75 PVTGs = Dhebar Commission (1960–61) origin = Fifth Five Year Plan 1974–79 first listing; PM JANMAN = Nov 15 2023 = 75 PVTGs = Rs 24,104 crore = 11 services = Janjatiya Gaurav Divas = Birsa Munda. Prelims trap: Fifth Schedule = 10 states (NOT all states with STs); Sixth Schedule applies to 4 NE states only (NOT to Fifth Schedule states — they are mutually exclusive systems); PESA = Panchayats Extension (NOT Forests — FRA is the forest act; PESA is the Panchayats act); FRA cut-off = December 13, 2005 (NOT the date of passing or notification); Sixth Schedule has 10 ADCs (NOT 6 or 8); PM JANMAN launched = November 15 (Janjatiya Gaurav Divas, Birsa Munda's birthday — NOT November 26 which is Constitution Day).
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- Battle of Saraighat (1671): Ahom general Lachit Borphukan defeated Aurangzeb's forces (NOT Akbar; NOT earlier Mughals)
- Treaty of Yandabo (1826): Ended Ahom kingdom, not Mughal-Ahom wars
- Rani Durgawati: Gond queen of Garha Mandla (NOT a Rajput queen; NOT from Rajasthan)
- Banjaras: Trading community (NOT same as Bhils or Gonds — different community, different function)
- Paik system: Ahom forced labour/military service — NOT the same as iqta or mansab
- Lachit Borphukan Gold Medal: Awarded at NDA — connects to current affairs/general awareness
Practice Questions
Prelims:
The Battle of Saraighat (1671), in which the Ahom forces successfully resisted the Mughal army, was fought on which river?
(a) Brahmaputra
(b) Ganga
(c) Barak
(d) TeestaRani Durgawati, who resisted Mughal invasion, was the ruler of:
(a) Mewar
(b) Garha Mandla (Gondwana)
(c) Bijapur
(d) JhansiThe Banjara community of medieval India was primarily known for:
(a) Forest conservation
(b) Long-distance trading and transporting grain
(c) Elephant taming
(d) Silk weaving
