The Making of Regional Cultures

UPSC GS1 — Kerala arts:

Kathakali:

• Classical dance-drama of Kerala; emerged in 17th century from earlier forms (Krishnanattam, Ramanattam)
• Themes: Episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana
• Elaborate costumes and make-up (pachha = green face for heroes; kathi = knife/villain; chuvanna tadi = red beard for demons)
• Traditionally performed overnight at temple festivals
• Exclusively male performers until modern times (female characters played by men)

Koodiyattam:

• Ancient Sanskrit theatre form; performed only by Chakyar caste at temples in Kerala
• UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage (2001) — India's first (and only) entry in the 2001 proclamation of Masterpieces of Oral and Intangible Heritage
• Extremely slow-paced; a single play can take several days/weeks

Mohiniyattam:

• Solo female classical dance from Kerala; graceful, fluid movements
• Theme: Mohini (enchantress) — appears in Hindu mythology (Vishnu's female form)
• Developed in 19th century; related to devadasi tradition

Manipravalam:

• Literary style mixing Malayalam and Sanskrit — "mango and coral" (two languages entwined)
• Developed in medieval Kerala (13th–15th centuries)
• Example: Ramacharitam (Tamil-Malayalam mix); later works purely in Malayalam
• Part of the transition from Sanskrit to vernacular as the primary literary medium

Temple murals (Kerala):

• Exceptional mural paintings in Kerala temples (14th–17th centuries)
• Mattancherry Palace (Kochi), Krishnapuram Palace — preserved examples
• Themes: Puranic narratives in a distinctive Kerala style

UPSC GS1 — Mughal painting:

Origins:

• Humayun invited Persian painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad to India
• They trained Indian painters → emergence of a distinctive Indo-Persian style under Akbar

Features:

• Fine brushwork, realistic portraits, detailed court scenes
• Persian influence: flat perspective, decorative backgrounds
• Indian elements: Indian flora/fauna, Indian faces, more vivid colours
• Documentation: Akbar had historical events painted — scenes from battles, court life (Akbarnama illustrated manuscripts)

Hamzanama: First major Mughal illustrated work; 1,400 large paintings commissioned by Akbar (depicting adventures of Amir Hamza, paternal uncle of Prophet Muhammad). Approximately ~170–200 folios survive (about one-eighth of the original).

Jahangir's era: Jahangir was the greatest Mughal patron of painting; detailed naturalistic studies of birds, animals, flowers; individual portraits. Ustad Mansur: Jahangir's court painter, famous for precise natural history illustrations ("Nadiral-Asr" — Wonder of the Age).

Decline: Aurangzeb was not interested in painting — court painters migrated to Rajput and Deccan courts; Mughal style merged into regional schools.

[Additional] India's UNESCO ICH Inscriptions — Complete Chronological List (GS1 — Art & Culture):

All 16 UNESCO ICH elements from India:

Key summary statistics:

• Total: 16 elements (as of December 2025)
• All on Representative List (NONE on Urgent Safeguarding List or Best Practices Register)
• India first ratified the 2003 Convention in 2005
• The 20th ICH session (December 2025) was the first time India hosted this annual committee meeting

Three elements with "2001 proclamation" context: Before the 2003 ICH Convention, UNESCO had a separate mechanism called "Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity." Kutiyattam (2001) and Ramlila (2005) were proclaimed under this older mechanism and then formally inscribed on the Representative List in 2008 when India ratified the new 2003 convention.

The Nowruz note: Nowruz was inscribed in 2009 with 7 original participating countries; extended to 12 countries in 2016. India is one of the 12 participating countries — this is a multinational inscription (shared with Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and others).

UPSC synthesis: India UNESCO ICH = GS1 Art & Culture. Key exam facts: Total = 16 elements (as of December 2025); all on Representative List = NONE on Urgent Safeguarding List; India ratified ICH Convention 2005; Kutiyattam = first (2001 Proclamation, 2008 RL inscription) = Kerala = Sanskrit theatre = Chakyar community; Chhau = 2010 = West Bengal + Jharkhand + Odisha = 3 styles (Purulia + Seraikella + Mayurbhanj); Kumbh Mela = 2017; Durga Puja = 2021; Garba = 2023 = Gujarat = 18th session Botswana; Deepavali = 10 December 2025 = 20th session = Red Fort, New Delhi = first time India hosted = 16th Indian ICH element. Prelims trap: Chhau is UNESCO ICH (2010) but is NOT a Sangeet Natak Akademi classical dance (it's a folk/tribal form — this is a critical distinction); Kutiyattam's UNESCO status = 2001 Proclamation (NOT inscribed 2001 — it was inscribed on the Representative List in 2008); Deepavali was inscribed in 2025 (NOT 2024); the session was at Red Fort, New Delhi (NOT at UNESCO headquarters Paris); Nowruz = multinational inscription (India is one of 12 countries — it is NOT India's alone); Kumbh Mela = 2017 (NOT 2018 or 2019).

[Additional] Sangeet Natak Akademi — 8 Classical Dance Forms, Recognition History, and Chhau Distinction (GS1 — Art & Culture):

Sangeet Natak Akademi — institution:

Why the "classical" distinction matters: The Sangeet Natak Akademi's classical designation is based on Sanskrit shastra (text) connection — specifically the Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni (the foundational Sanskrit text on performing arts). Classical forms require:

1. A codified grammar of movement documented in or derived from Sanskrit texts
2. Recognisable technical vocabulary (hastas, mudras, abhinaya, footwork patterns)
3. Transmission through documented guru-shishya lineages
4. A sophisticated theoretical framework connecting aesthetics, music, poetry, and movement

Folk and tribal forms — however culturally rich and important — are not formally included in the classical canon because they lack this specific shastra-based codification.

The 8 recognized classical dance forms:

Chhau — why it is NOT classical despite being UNESCO ICH:

Award structure:

UPSC synthesis: Sangeet Natak Akademi + Classical Dances = GS1 Art & Culture. Key exam facts: Sangeet Natak Akademi = 31 May 1952 (established) + 28 January 1953 (inaugurated) + Ministry of Culture + apex performing arts body + nodal body for UNESCO ICH nominations; 8 classical dances (NOT 6, 7, or 9); the 8th = Sattriya = recognized 15 November 2000 = Assam = Srimanta Shankardev = Vaishnava Sattras = only Northeast India classical dance; Chhau = UNESCO ICH (2010) but NOT classical = folk/tribal = 3 styles (Purulia WB + Seraikella JH + Mayurbhanj OD); Bharatanatyam = Tamil Nadu = oldest; Kathak = UP/Rajasthan = Mughal court = Lucknow + Jaipur gharanas; Odissi = Odisha = Mahari devadasi tradition = tribhanga posture; Akademi Fellowship = 40 living fellows at a time; Award = up to 41 per year; youth award = Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar (25–40 age). Prelims trap: Classical dances = 8 (NOT 7 or 9 — Chhau is UNESCO ICH but NOT classical; Sattriya IS classical = 8th); Chhau is folk/tribal (NOT classical — this is the most common Prelims trick); Sattriya = Assam (NOT Manipur — Manipuri is from Manipur; Sattriya is from Assam); the Akademi Fellowship is capped at 40 living fellows at a time (NOT a fixed annual award — it is vacancy-based); the Akademi is under Ministry of Culture (NOT Ministry of Education — though it was originally set up by the Ministry of Education, it now falls under Ministry of Culture).