BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Historical sources and methodology underpin all of GS1 Ancient and Medieval History. Prelims regularly tests excavators, sites, inscriptions (Ashokan edicts), and travel accounts. Knowing who excavated which Harappan site, what Megasthenes/Fa Hian/Xuanzang witnessed, and how primary vs secondary sources differ is foundational.
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
Table 1: India's Broad Historical Timeline
| Period | Approximate Date | Key Marker |
|---|---|---|
| Lower Palaeolithic | ~500,000 BCE | Attirampakkam, Tamil Nadu (Acheulean tools); earliest evidence of human-like activity in Indian subcontinent |
| Middle Stone Age | ~150,000–30,000 BCE | Flake tools; regional variations |
| Upper Palaeolithic | ~40,000–10,000 BCE | Blade tools; Bhimbetka paintings begin |
| Mesolithic | ~10,000–5000 BCE | Microliths; Bhimbetka rock shelters (MP); hunter-gatherers with some proto-pastoralism |
| Neolithic | ~7000–3000 BCE | Mehrgarh, Balochistan (~7000 BCE) — earliest farming in South Asia; cattle domestication |
| Chalcolithic (Copper Age) | ~3500–1500 BCE | Copper use; regional cultures (Malwa, Jorwe, Ahar-Banas) |
| Harappan / IVC | ~3300–1300 BCE | Planned cities; script; trade; urban civilisation |
| Vedic Age (Early) | ~1500–1000 BCE | Rig Veda; pastoral; Indo-Gangetic movement begins |
| Vedic Age (Later) | ~1000–600 BCE | Iron Age; later Vedas; Upanishads; Mahajanapadas forming |
| Mahajanapadas | ~600–321 BCE | 16 Mahajanapadas; rise of Buddhism and Jainism; Magadha's dominance |
| Mauryan Empire | 321–185 BCE | Chandragupta → Bindusara → Ashoka; first pan-India empire |
| Post-Mauryan | 185 BCE–320 CE | Shungas, Kushanas, Satavahanas, Guptas beginning |
Table 2: Key Archaeological Excavators and Sites
| Site | Location | Excavated By | Year | Key Find |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan | Daya Ram Sahni | 1921 | First IVC site identified |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh, Pakistan | R.D. Banerji | 1922 | Great Bath; Dancing Girl; Pashupati Seal |
| Dholavira | Rann of Kutch, Gujarat | R.S. Bisht | 1967–68 (systematic excavation from 1990) | IVC inscription; unique water management; UNESCO WHS 2021 |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana | Amarendra Nath (ASI); Vasant Shinde (Deccan College) | 1963 (survey); 1997+ (major excavation) | Largest IVC site; DNA study (2019) |
| Lothal | Gujarat | S.R. Rao | 1955–62 | Dockyard; bead factory; fire altars |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan | B.B. Lal, B.K. Thapar | 1960–69 | Pre-Harappan ploughed field; fire altars |
| Surkotada | Gujarat | J.P. Joshi | 1964–68 | Horse remains; fortified city |
| Attirampakkam | Tamil Nadu | Robert Bruce Foote (1863, first discovery); recent systematic study: Shanti Pappu et al. | 1863 onwards | Acheulean and then Middle Palaeolithic tools; ~500,000–385,000 BCE |
| Bhimbetka | Madhya Pradesh | V.S. Wakankar | 1957–58 | Rock shelters; paintings from ~30,000 BCE; UNESCO WHS 2003 |
Table 3: Major Foreign Accounts of India
| Visitor | Origin | Period | Text/Account | Indian Ruler/Period | Key Observations |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Megasthenes | Greek (Seleucid ambassador) | ~302–298 BCE | Indika (lost; fragments preserved in later authors) | Chandragupta Maurya | Mauryan administration; Pataliputra; caste; army; no slavery |
| Fa Hian (Faxian) | China (Buddhist monk) | 399–414 CE | Record of Buddhist Kingdoms | Gupta period (Chandragupta II) | Buddhist monasteries; prosperous towns; mild punishments; vegetarianism |
| Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) | China (Buddhist monk) | 629–645 CE | Great Tang Records on the Western Regions | Harsha (Harshavardhana) | Detailed account of Harsha's reign; Buddhism declining; Nalanda; Kanauj assembly |
| Al-Biruni | Central Asia (Khwarazm) | 1017–1030 CE | Kitab-ul-Hind (Book of India) | Mahmud of Ghazni's era | Comprehensive account of Indian science, philosophy, geography, customs; critical of caste |
| Ibn Battuta | Morocco | 1333–1342 CE | Rihla (The Journey) | Muhammad bin Tughluq (Delhi Sultanate) | Detailed description of cities, customs, Tughluq's eccentricities; postal system; market regulation |
| Marco Polo | Italy (Venice) | ~1292–93 CE | The Travels of Marco Polo | Pandya kingdom (South India); en route China | South Indian kingdoms; pepper trade; Vijayanagara empire (briefly) |
| Abdur Razzaq | Persia | 1442–43 CE | Matla-us-Sadain | Vijayanagara (Deva Raya II) | Magnificent description of Vijayanagara city; market; coronation |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
Why Study History? — The Historian's Purpose
History is the systematic study of the past based on evidence. It helps us:
- Understand how present political, social, and cultural arrangements came to be
- Learn from past mistakes (wars, famines, policy failures) and successes
- Understand the roots of cultural traditions, religions, and languages
- Develop critical thinking — evaluating evidence, questioning sources, identifying bias
The key principle: Historians do not just narrate; they interpret. The same set of sources can yield different historical interpretations. UPSC tests this through questions on the limitations and biases of historical sources.
BCE/CE Timeline — Understanding the Notation
BCE = Before Common Era (same as BC — Before Christ, but secular notation) CE = Common Era (same as AD — Anno Domini, Year of the Lord)
Timeline logic: BCE years count backwards (3000 BCE is older than 2000 BCE). CE years count forwards (500 CE is older than 1000 CE).
Prehistoric vs Historic: "Prehistoric" = before writing; "Historic" = after writing and written records appear. In India, writing appears with the Harappan script (~2600 BCE) — but since it is undeciphered, the IVC is sometimes called "proto-historic." The first deciphered written records in India are the Ashokan inscriptions (3rd century BCE).
Archaeological Sources
What archaeologists study: Excavated physical remains — buildings, pottery, tools, ornaments, human/animal bones, seeds, coins, drainage systems, burial sites.
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): Established 1861 by the British; first Director General = Alexander Cunningham (identified Harappa in 1853 though did not conduct systematic excavation). ASI protects 3,693 Centrally Protected Monuments. The ASI conducts excavations and manages conservation of sites like Sanchi, Hampi, Ajanta, Ellora.
Dating methods used:
- Stratigraphy: Deeper layers = older; reading layers like pages of a book
- Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon) dating: Measures decay of C-14 isotope in organic material; accurate up to ~50,000 years; developed 1949 (Willard Libby, Nobel Prize 1960)
- Thermoluminescence (TL) dating: Useful for pottery and minerals; measures trapped electrons; used for Attirampakkam tools
- Dendrochronology: Tree ring dating (limited use in tropical India)
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters (MP): Discovered by V.S. Wakankar in 1957-58. UNESCO World Heritage Site 2003. Rock paintings span from ~30,000 BCE to historical period — animals, hunting, dancing, religious rituals. The oldest paintings depict hunting scenes with aurochs (wild cattle) and elephants. Located in Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh.
Inscriptions — The Most Reliable Written Sources
UPSC GS1 — Ashokan Edicts and Early Indian Inscriptions:
Ashokan Edicts: Emperor Ashoka (r. ~268–232 BCE) issued rock edicts and pillar edicts across his empire — the first political inscriptions in India. Written in Brahmi script (most), Kharosthi script (northwest, modern Pakistan/Afghanistan), and Greek and Aramaic (bilingual edicts in northwest for Greek-speaking subjects).
Ashoka refers to himself as "Devanampiya Piyadasi" (Beloved of the Gods, Pleasing to Behold) in the inscriptions. The identification of these inscriptions with Ashoka was made by James Prinsep in 1837 when he first deciphered the Brahmi script — one of the greatest achievements in Indological research.
Types of Ashokan inscriptions:
- Major Rock Edicts (14): On large boulders; spread across empire; content on dhamma, non-violence, respect for all sects, treatment of animals and humans
- Minor Rock Edicts: Personal inscriptions; mention his conversion after Kalinga war
- Pillar Edicts (7 major): On polished sandstone pillars; edicts on dhamma, administration, release of prisoners
Key locations: Girnar (Gujarat), Dhauli (Odisha, near Kalinga battlefield), Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra (Pakistan), Delhi-Meerut Pillar, Delhi-Topra Pillar, Sanchi, Sarnath (Lion Capital — now India's national emblem).
Samudragupta's Allahabad Pillar Prashasti: Written by court poet Harishena (~350 CE); on an Ashokan pillar at Prayagraj (Allahabad); records Samudragupta's military campaigns and his position as "king of kings" (a primary source for Gupta period political history).
Manuscripts
Manuscripts: Handwritten documents on palm leaf (tala patra), birch bark (bhurja patra), and later paper. Housed in manuscript libraries (National Mission for Manuscripts, est. 2003, has surveyed ~5 million manuscripts across India).
Key manuscripts and texts:
- Arthashastra (Kautilya/Chanakya, ~300 BCE): Political science and economics; governance, espionage, foreign policy; rediscovered 1905 (R. Shamasastry in Mysore Oriental Library)
- Ain-i-Akbari (Abul Fazl, ~1590s CE): Third volume of Akbarnama; detailed administrative account of Akbar's empire — provinces, revenue, mansabdari system; invaluable primary source
- Vedas: Oral tradition for ~3,000 years before being written down; Rig Veda (~1500 BCE oral composition; written down much later); show that oral traditions can preserve ancient texts with remarkable accuracy
Coins as Historical Sources
What coins tell us:
- Rulers and dynasties: Name, portrait, title of issuing ruler
- Religion: Deities on coins reveal state religion (Kushana coins show Greek, Iranian, and Indian deities — evidence of their syncretic culture)
- Economy: Presence of gold coins = prosperous trade; debasement of silver coins = economic crisis
- Trade routes: Distribution of coin hoards shows trade networks
Key coin types:
- Punch-marked coins (Mauryan era): Earliest Indian coins; symbols punched (not engraved portrait); janapada coins and imperial Mauryan coins
- Gupta gold coins (Dinaras): Considered the most artistic ancient Indian coins; show Gupta rulers in various poses (hunting, playing veena, Ashwamedha); important source for Gupta history
- Kushana coins: Show both Indian deities and Zoroastrian/Greek deities; evidence of cultural synthesis
- South Indian coins: Chera, Chola, Pandya punch-marked coins; Tamil Brahmi legends
Historical Methodology — Critical Approach
UPSC GS1 — Evaluating Historical Sources:
Primary sources = Contemporary evidence created at the time of the event (coins, inscriptions, official documents, eye-witness accounts like Megasthenes).
Secondary sources = Accounts written after the event, based on primary sources or other secondary sources (modern history books, textbooks).
Biases in sources:
- Political bias: Court chronicles (like Ain-i-Akbari) glorify the ruler; victories are exaggerated, defeats minimised
- Religious bias: Buddhist texts focus on Buddhist kings; Brahmanical texts emphasise varna hierarchy; each tradition portrays history through its own lens
- Gender bias: Ancient texts almost universally written by men, about men; women's perspectives largely absent
- Class bias: Arthashastra is a text of the elite ruling class; the lives of ordinary farmers, artisans, slaves are poorly documented
Interdisciplinary history: Modern historians use archaeology + linguistics + genetics + palaeoclimatology together. For example, the 2019 ancient DNA study of Rakhigarhi skeletons (by Vasant Shinde et al., published in Cell) found no genetic contribution from Central Asian steppe pastoralists — complicating but not resolving the debate about Aryan migration/indigenous origin.
[Additional] 4a. Rakhigarhi DNA Study (2019) — Rewriting the IVC Origins Debate
The chapter discusses Harappan civilisation and its sources of historical knowledge. The biggest recent breakthrough in understanding IVC origins is the 2019 ancient DNA study of a Rakhigarhi skeleton — published in the journal Cell — which provided the first genomic evidence from the Harappan civilisation, directly addressing the century-old Aryan Invasion / Migration Theory debate. Simultaneously, Dholavira's inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (July 2021) — for its unique stone architecture and the world's earliest planned water management system — gives UPSC another anchor for IVC current affairs.
Key Terms for IVC Genomics and Archaeology:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Ancient DNA (aDNA) | DNA extracted from ancient skeletal remains — allows direct genomic sequencing of past populations |
| Iranian-related ancestry | Genetic lineage tracing to ancient Iranian farmers (Zagros mountains, Iran) — one of the two main ancestral components of IVC people |
| AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) | A very ancient South Asian hunter-gatherer ancestral component — distinct from any population outside South Asia; the second major IVC genomic component |
| Steppe ancestry | Genetic component associated with Bronze Age pastoralists from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe (modern Ukraine/Russia) — absent in the 2400-1900 BCE IVC sample |
| AIT/AMT | Aryan Invasion Theory / Aryan Migration Theory — the idea that Indo-European-speaking peoples migrated from the Steppe into South Asia, bringing Sanskrit and the Vedic tradition |
| Rakhigarhi | IVC site in Haryana; one of the largest IVC sites ever found (~350 ha); provides the first ancient DNA from within the mature Harappan civilisation period |
[Additional] Rakhigarhi Ancient DNA (2019) and IVC Origins (GS1 — Ancient Indian History / Art and Culture):
The 2019 Rakhigarhi ancient DNA study:
- Published in: Cell (September 5, 2019) — one of the world's most prestigious scientific journals
- Lead authors: Vagheesh M. Narasimhan (Harvard), David Reich (Harvard), Vasant Shinde (Deccan College, Pune); collaborating with researchers from CCMB, Hyderabad
- Sample: Ancient DNA extracted from a ~4,500-year-old (2600-2400 BCE) female skeleton (I6113) from Rakhigarhi, Haryana — dated to the mature phase of the Harappan civilisation
- Key genomic finding: The individual's genome showed:
- Iranian-related ancestry: About 58–72% ancestry from ancient Iranian farmers (similar to populations from Zagros mountains, not the same as modern Iranians)
- AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian): Remaining ancestry from an ancient South Asian hunter-gatherer component found only in South Asia
- Zero Steppe ancestry — no evidence of Indo-European steppe pastoralist admixture in this mature IVC individual
What this means for the Aryan Debate:
- Steppe pastoralists are widely accepted as the carriers of Proto-Indo-European languages (ancestor of Sanskrit) into South Asia
- Finding no Steppe ancestry in a mature Harappan individual (2400 BCE) confirms that:
- The IVC population was NOT of Steppe origin
- Steppe ancestry entered South Asia after the decline of the IVC (post-1900 BCE) — during or after the late Harappan period
- The IVC civilisation = Iranian-related + AASI ancestry; Vedic Sanskrit came later with post-IVC migrations
- The study does NOT "disprove" migration; it establishes its chronological sequence — IVC first, Steppe migration second
Dholavira — UNESCO World Heritage Site (July 27, 2021):
- Inscribed: 44th session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, Fuzhou (China), July 27, 2021
- India's 40th UNESCO WHS at the time of inscription (India now has 43 total as of July 2024)
- Location: Khadir Island (Bet Khadir), Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
- Period: Approximately 2650–1450 BCE (mature + late Harappan phases)
- Why unique among IVC sites:
- Built almost entirely of cut stone (not mud brick like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi) — the only major IVC site with stone architecture
- Contains 16 reservoirs covering 36 ha within the city — the world's earliest planned urban water management system; connected by channels to capture monsoon runoff
- The famous Dholavira "signboard" — a large inscription of 10 Indus Script signs found at the north gate; the largest-ever Indus Script inscription (Indus Script remains undeciphered)
UPSC synthesis: Rakhigarhi DNA is GS1 ancient history meets GS3 science policy. Key exam facts: Cell September 2019; Rakhigarhi = Haryana, mature IVC site; individual 2400 BCE; genome = Iranian-related + AASI; zero Steppe ancestry; Steppe entered post-IVC decline; IVC ≠ Aryan/Vedic; Dholavira = Gujarat Rann of Kutch; UNESCO WHS July 27 2021 (44th WHC session Fuzhou); stone architecture + 16 reservoirs; earliest urban water management; Dholavira signboard = largest Indus Script inscription (10 signs); Indus Script = undeciphered.
[Additional] 4b. Keeladi Excavations — Sangam-Era Tamil Civilisation and Moidams as UNESCO WHS
The chapter focuses on Harappan and northern historical sources. Two major 2021-2025 archaeological developments shift the picture southward: Keeladi (Tamil Nadu) has pushed back Sangam-era urban civilisation by 300 years to 580 BCE, with a 2024 discovery of a 2,600-year-old terracotta pipeline — the oldest urban drainage system in South India. And the Moidams of Assam were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in July 2024 — India's 43rd, and the first from Northeast India.
Key Archaeological Terms:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Sangam literature | Ancient Tamil literary corpus composed approximately 300 BCE–300 CE; describes urban life, trade, war, and love; named for the legendary Sangam (literary academies) at Madurai |
| Radiocarbon dating (C-14) | Dating method using the known decay rate of radioactive carbon-14 in organic material — can date bones, charcoal, seeds to within ±50-100 years |
| Terracotta | Baked clay; used in antiquity for pots, figurines, drains, bricks |
| Moidam | Burial mound of the Ahom kings and nobility — a hemispherical earthen mound over a vaulted brick or stone burial chamber; the word means "burial" in Ahom |
| Ahom Kingdom | Kingdom that ruled Assam for approximately 600 years (1228–1826 CE) — one of the longest-ruling dynasties in Indian history; never conquered by the Mughals |
| ASI | Archaeological Survey of India — India's premier body for archaeological research, site protection, and heritage management |
[Additional] Keeladi Excavations and Moidams UNESCO WHS (GS1 — Ancient History / Art and Culture):
Keeladi — Tamil Nadu:
- Location: Sivaganga district, Tamil Nadu; on the banks of the Vaigai River; 12 km southeast of Madurai
- Discovery: First identified during 2015-2016 excavation season by ASI; subsequent seasons conducted by Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department (TNAD)
- Dating: Radiocarbon dating of samples places occupation at 580 BCE to 200 CE — confirming an urban settlement 300 years earlier than previously accepted for Sangam-era Tamil civilisation (which was placed at ~300 BCE)
- Key finds:
- Brick structures (houses with planned layout)
- Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions — among India's earliest Tamil script
- Copper artefacts, iron implements, spindle whorls (evidence of cotton weaving)
- Animal bones: cattle, sheep, deer — evidence of mixed economy
- Imported pottery linking to Red Sea trade networks
August 2024 discovery — 2,600-year-old terracotta pipeline:
- During the 9th excavation season (August 2024), TNAD excavators found a terracotta pipeline dated to approximately 600 BCE — making it the oldest urban drainage/water supply system in South India, predating the Roman terracotta pipe systems in India
- The pipeline consists of interlocking terracotta pipes arranged in a linear channel — evidence of planned urban water infrastructure at Keeladi contemporaneous with early Harappan waterworks
ASI approval for 8 new Keeladi sites — March 2026:
- ASI granted permission for excavation at 8 additional sites surrounding Keeladi (March 2026), expanding the Vaigai River corridor investigation
- The expanded excavation zone is expected to reveal the full extent of the ancient urban complex — evidence suggests a much larger city than the currently excavated ~1 ha area
Harappan / Indus Script — still undeciphered:
- The chapter mentions Ashokan edicts — these are in Brahmi script (deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837). The earlier Indus/Harappan Script is a completely separate, undeciphered writing system
- Over 100 years of attempts — no consensus decipherment; 4,000+ seal inscriptions known; average inscription length = 5 signs
- ASI international conference on Indus Script, August 20-22, 2025 — held in New Delhi; brought together 40+ scholars from 12 countries; no breakthrough but established new digital corpus
Moidams (Charaideo Moidams) — UNESCO WHS, July 2024:
- Inscribed: 46th session of UNESCO World Heritage Committee, New Delhi, India, July 2024 (the WHC was hosted by India for the first time)
- India's 43rd UNESCO World Heritage Site (and 1st from Northeast India to be inscribed as a cultural site)
- Location: Charaideo district, Assam — the spiritual heartland of the Ahom Kingdom (~80 km east of Dibrugarh)
- What Moidams are: Burial mounds of the Ahom kings and nobility; approximately 386 moidams survive at Charaideo (originally many more)
- Construction: Hemispherical earthen mound raised over a vaulted burial chamber (built of brick or stone); the chamber contained the body + personal belongings + sometimes buried servants (raij-mel system gradually reformed)
- Ahom Kingdom context: Ahom kings ruled Assam for nearly 600 years (1228–1826 CE) — never conquered by the Mughal Empire (Saraighat Battle, 1671, repelled Mughal invasion under Lachit Borphukan, whose birth anniversary November 24 is now Sainik Diwas)
- Why inscribed (Outstanding Universal Value): Unique funerary tradition; exceptional preservation; living Ahom cultural practices associated with moidam veneration; 600-year continuous dynastic record
UPSC synthesis: Keeladi + Moidams = GS1 ancient history current affairs. Key exam facts: Keeladi = Sivaganga TN, Vaigai River, 580 BCE-200 CE (300 years before accepted Sangam era start); Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions; August 2024 = 2,600-year terracotta pipeline (oldest urban drainage South India); ASI cleared 8 new sites March 2026; Indus Script conference August 20-22 2025 New Delhi; Moidams = Charaideo Assam; UNESCO WHC 46th session New Delhi July 2024 (India hosted); India's 43rd WHS; Ahom Kingdom 600 years 1228-1826 CE; Lachit Borphukan + Saraighat 1671; moidam = royal burial mound, vaulted chamber + earthen mound. India's WHS count: 43 (as of July 2024).
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- Harappa excavated by Daya Ram Sahni (1921), NOT Mohenjo-daro; Mohenjo-daro = R.D. Banerji (1922)
- Dholavira = Gujarat (Rann of Kutch); UNESCO WHS 2021 (not 2012 — that was Western Ghats)
- Rakhigarhi = largest Harappan site (Haryana); Mohenjo-daro is the most famous but not largest
- Lothal (Gujarat) = dockyard; Kalibangan (Rajasthan) = ploughed field evidence
- Bhimbetka = UNESCO WHS 2003; discoverer = V.S. Wakankar; located in Madhya Pradesh (Raisen district)
- Ashokan edicts in Brahmi script decoded by James Prinsep, 1837 (not Alexander Cunningham)
- Ashoka = "Devanampiya Piyadasi" in inscriptions; personal name appears only in minor rock edicts
- Fa Hian = Gupta period (Chandragupta II); Xuanzang = Harsha's period; often confused
- Al-Biruni wrote Kitab-ul-Hind (NOT Marco Polo, NOT Ibn Battuta)
- ASI established 1861; first DG = Alexander Cunningham
Mains angles:
- Limitations of ancient Indian sources for reconstructing social history (gender, class, caste biases)
- How the Ashokan inscriptions revolutionised understanding of Mauryan India
- Genetic/archaeological evidence and the Aryan migration debate
Practice Questions
Prelims:
Who among the following was the first excavator of the Harappan site at Harappa?
(a) R.D. Banerji
(b) Daya Ram Sahni
(c) John Marshall
(d) Mortimer WheelerXuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) visited India during the reign of which ruler?
(a) Chandragupta II
(b) Ashoka
(c) Harshavardhana
(d) Chandragupta MauryaConsider the following statements about Dholavira:
- It is located in Gujarat.
- It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021.
- It is the largest known Harappan site.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (Rakhigarhi, Haryana, is the largest — not Dholavira)
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
- It is located in Gujarat.
Mains:
Discuss the significance of Ashokan inscriptions as historical sources. How have they contributed to our understanding of the Mauryan Empire and Ashoka's policy of Dhamma? (CSE Mains 2018, GS Paper 1, 15 marks)
"Ancient Indian historical writing suffers from an absence of voices from the margins — women, lower castes, artisans, and slaves." Critically examine this statement with reference to the nature of available sources. (CSE Mains 2020, GS Paper 1, 10 marks)
