Ch11: Nature's Treasures

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Ozone Layer and Montreal Protocol

Ozone depletion: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs — used in refrigerants, aerosols) and halons (fire extinguishers) rise to the stratosphere, are broken down by UV radiation, and release free chlorine/bromine atoms that catalytically destroy O₃ molecules.

Ozone hole: Most severe over Antarctica (polar vortex traps ozone-depleting substances). First observed in 1985 by British Antarctic Survey. At its largest, covered an area larger than North America.

Montreal Protocol (1987): International treaty to phase out ozone-depleting substances. Considered the most successful environmental treaty in history:

• Universal ratification: 198 countries — only UN treaty to achieve this.
• Kigali Amendment (2016): Extended to phase down HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons — CFC replacements that don't harm ozone but are potent greenhouse gases). India ratified the Kigali Amendment.
• Ozone recovery: Expected to recover to pre-1980 levels by approximately 2066 over Antarctica (Arctic ozone recovery ~2045).
• India's obligations: Phase-out of HCFCs by 2030 (Article 5 developing country schedule).

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Water Pollution in India

India treats only ~44% of its wastewater (Central Pollution Control Board, 2021 data). The rest flows untreated into rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

~70% of India's surface water is polluted (NITI Aayog). Major pollutants:

• Domestic sewage: Single largest source; ~62,000 MLD generated nationally; treatment capacity ~26,869 MLD.
• Industrial effluents: Textile dyeing (Tirupur, Ludhiana), tanneries (Kanpur — chromium pollution in Ganga), fertiliser plants.
• Agricultural runoff: Pesticides, fertilisers (nitrate pollution of groundwater).

Ganga pollution: ~3,000 MLD of untreated sewage enters Ganga daily from 97 towns on its banks. Faecal coliform counts far exceed drinking water standards. Namami Gange Programme (2015, ₹20,000 crore) aims at:

• Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) — real-time effluent monitoring.
• Industrial effluent ZLD (zero liquid discharge) compliance.
• Afforestation of Ganga banks.
• Biodiversity conservation (Gangetic dolphin — National Aquatic Animal; River Ganga — National River).

India's rank: 13th most water-stressed country (WRI Aqueduct 2023).

UPSC GS3 — Environment & Agriculture: Soil Erosion and Conservation

Soil formation: Parent rock broken down by physical weathering (freeze-thaw, thermal expansion), chemical weathering (acid rain, oxidation), and biological weathering (plant roots, microorganisms) over thousands of years.

Critical fact for UPSC: Approximately 1 cm of topsoil takes ~500 years to form. This makes soil a practically non-renewable resource on human timescales.

India's soil erosion crisis:

• India loses approximately 5,334 MT of soil per year (ICAR — Indian Council of Agricultural Research estimate).
• Chambal ravines (MP/UP/Rajasthan): Among the worst examples of gully erosion in the world; ~4,000 sq km of ravines; historically associated with bandit/dacoit activity due to inaccessibility.
• Rajasthan desertification: Thar Desert expanding due to overgrazing and deforestation; desertification also in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Northeast India: Jhum (shifting) cultivation causing severe soil erosion on slopes.

Soil conservation measures:

• Soil Health Card Scheme (2015): Test soil for 12 parameters; issue health cards to farmers; over 22 crore cards issued (2023).
• Contour farming, terracing, windbreaks (agroforestry).
• Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP): Rejuvenate watershed areas, reduce runoff, recharge groundwater.
• PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana: "Har Khet Ko Pani" + "More Crop Per Drop" — efficient irrigation reduces waterlogging and soil salinity.

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Forest Cover and Legal Framework

India's forest cover: 25.17% of India's geographical area (ISFR 2023 — India State of Forest Report, published by Forest Survey of India). This consists of 21.76% forest cover + 3.41% tree cover (outside forests).

The National Forest Policy, 1988 targets 33% of land area under forest cover — not yet achieved in 35+ years.

Legal framework:

• Indian Forest Act, 1927: Colonial-era; classifies forests as Reserved, Protected, Village forests.
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (FCA): No diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes without central government approval — critical for protecting forests from infrastructure projects.
• Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023: Controversial amendment; removes FCA protection from forest land within 100 km of international borders (for security infrastructure) and land not recorded as forest in government records — concerns that unrecorded community forests lose protection.

Forests as carbon sinks: India's forests absorb approximately 177 MT CO₂/year — critical to India's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) target under Paris Agreement of creating additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through additional forest/tree cover by 2030.

UPSC GS3 — Economy: India's Mineral Resources and Critical Minerals

India's mineral profile:

• Produces ~95 minerals (4 fuel + 10 metallic + 23 non-metallic + others).
• Iron ore: 4th largest reserves globally; major deposits in Odisha (Barbil-Barajamda), Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Goa.
• Bauxite (aluminium ore): Largest reserves in Asia; Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand.
• Coal: 5th largest reserves globally; Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, MP, Telangana.

Critical Minerals — strategic importance:

• Lithium: Essential for EV batteries and energy storage. In February 2023, Geological Survey of India announced discovery of ~5.9 MT of lithium inferred resources in Salal-Haimana area, Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir — India's first significant domestic lithium find. Validation ongoing; commercial extraction requires further exploration.
• Cobalt, Nickel, Rare Earth Elements (REEs): India has limited domestic reserves; mostly import-dependent (China dominates REE supply chain — ~60% of global REE production).
• India's Critical Minerals List (2023): 30 minerals identified including lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, titanium, REEs — under Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2023.
• [Additional] First critical mineral block auctions: India auctioned its first 20 critical mineral blocks in November 2023 (under the MMDR Amendment Act 2023 framework) — blocks containing lithium, graphite, cobalt, potash, REEs, PGEs (Platinum Group Elements).

[Additional] National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM): Cabinet approved the National Critical Mineral Mission in January 2025 with a budget of ₹16,300 crore over 7 years. Objectives:

• Accelerate domestic exploration and production of 30 critical minerals
• Acquire mineral assets overseas (similar to how India's ONGC Videsh acquires oil blocks)
• Develop recycling technology for secondary critical minerals (from EV batteries, electronics waste)
• Reduce dependence on China for REEs and battery-grade materials
• KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd — JV of NALCO, HCL, MECL) is the overseas acquisition vehicle

[Additional] Coal — Milestone Production: India crossed 1 billion (100 crore) tonnes of coal production for the first time in FY 2024-25:

• Total: 1,047.67 MT — milestone achieved on March 20, 2025 (Ministry of Coal press release)
• India is now the 2nd largest coal producer globally (after China)
• Coal India Limited (CIL) contributed ~80% of production; rest from captive blocks
• This milestone matters for UPSC GS3 Energy Security — India is simultaneously expanding coal (for energy security) and renewables (NDC commitments), a central tension in India's energy policy

[Additional] District Mineral Foundations (DMF) and PMKKKY:

• DMF (set up under MMDR Amendment 2015): Non-lapsable trust funds in mining-affected districts, funded by contributions from mining leaseholders
• Total DMF corpus collected: ₹1,02,083 crore (cumulative as of 2025; Ministry of Mines)
• Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY) governs DMF spending; revised guidelines issued January 2024 mandating: 70% of DMF funds for high-priority areas (drinking water, health, education, environment); mandatory CAG audit; time-bound project completion

Deep-sea minerals:

• India has an Exclusive Mining Zone of 75,000 km² in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for polymetallic nodule exploration — awarded by the International Seabed Authority (ISBA, Kingston, Jamaica).
• Nodules contain manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt — critical for batteries and electronics.
• India's Blue Economy goal includes deep-sea mineral extraction under the Deep Ocean Mission (₹4,077 crore, 2021): develop submersible vehicles, deep-sea mining technology, deep-sea biodiversity assessment.

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Biodiversity Loss and the Sixth Mass Extinction

India's biodiversity:

• ~91,000 animal species; ~45,000 plant species described.
• 4 Biodiversity Hotspots: Western Ghats + Sri Lanka; Indo-Burma (Northeast India + SE Asia); Eastern Himalayas; Sundaland (India's Nicobar Islands).
• Endemism: Western Ghats alone has 325+ endemic flowering plant species; ~500 endemic vertebrate species (amphibians, reptiles, mammals).

Global biodiversity crisis:

• IPBES Global Assessment (2019): Approximately 1 million animal and plant species face extinction — unprecedented in human history.
• Current extinction rate: 100–1,000× the background (natural) rate — qualifying as the Sixth Mass Extinction (previous 5 were caused by asteroid impacts, volcanic eruptions, etc.; this one is human-caused = anthropogenic).
• Primary drivers (IPBES): Land-use change (habitat destruction) > Direct exploitation (hunting/fishing) > Climate change > Pollution > Invasive species.

India's response:

• Protected Area network: 107 National Parks (MoEFCC, April 2025), 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 97 Conservation Reserves, 4 Community Reserves.
• Project Tiger (1973), Project Elephant (1992), Project Lion (proposed), Project Dolphin (2020).
• Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism; National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards, Biodiversity Management Committees.
• Nagoya Protocol (2010): International ABS framework under CBD; India ratified 2012.

[Additional] India's Renewable Energy Milestone (GS3 — Energy / Environment / Economy):

Installed renewable capacity (as of 31 March 2026):

• Record annual addition: FY 2025-26 added 55.29 GW of non-fossil capacity — the highest ever in India in a single year
  • Solar alone: 44.61 GW added (nearly double FY 2024-25's 23.83 GW)
  • Wind: 6.05 GW added — also record high

Key milestones achieved:

• 50% non-fossil milestone (June 2025): India crossed 50% non-fossil electricity generation capacity — 5 years ahead of NDC 2.0 target (original target: 2030; NDC 3.0 target = 60% non-fossil by 2035, now expected well ahead of schedule)
• 3rd globally: India ranks 3rd in installed renewable capacity globally (after China, USA); 4th in installed wind capacity
• Solar at 150 GW: Crossed 150 GW solar capacity milestone by March 2026 — significant as India set out with a 100 GW solar target in 2015 (under PM Modi's first solar push); target exceeded and then raised to 500 GW total renewable by 2030

Key schemes driving the transition:

• PM Surya Ghar (Muft Bijli Yojana): Rooftop solar for households; 9.56 GW installed, 2.5 crore households targeted; subsidy provided by MNRE
• PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan): Solar pumps and solar power plants for farmers; 10,203 MW installed by November 2025; 20.42 lakh farmers benefited; scheme extended to March 2026; Rs. 7,106 crore released by Centre
• Green Hydrogen: National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM, Cabinet January 2023, Rs. 19,744 crore outlay); target: produce 5 MMT green H₂/year by 2030; strategic hydrogen-exporting nation vision

UPSC synthesis: India's 500 GW RE target by 2030 is its NDC implementation backbone. Key exam facts: Total RE installed = 274.68 GW (31 March 2026); non-fossil = 283.46 GW (includes large hydro + nuclear); 50% non-fossil milestone crossed June 2025 (5 years ahead of NDC target); FY25-26 = record 55.29 GW added; India = 3rd globally in RE capacity; PM-KUSUM = 20.42 lakh farmers; NGHM = green hydrogen, Rs. 19,744 crore, 5 MMT/year target. Ministry = Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). Solar capacity alone (150.26 GW) is larger than 99% of countries' total power capacity.

[Additional] India's Oil Import Dependence and COP29 Coal Debate (GS3 — Energy Security / GS2 — International Relations):

India's crude oil import data (FY 2024-25):

• Import dependence: 88.2% — all-time high (FY 2023-24: 87.7%; trend is rising)
• Domestic crude production: 28.70 MT/year — down 22.3% from 36.94 MT in 2015-16 (aging Bombay High and other offshore fields; insufficient new discovery)
• Crude imports: 243.22 MT in FY 2024-25
• Russia now India's top oil supplier: After Western sanctions on Russia post-February 2022 Ukraine invasion, India dramatically increased Russian crude imports at discount prices — Russia provides 36%+ of India's crude imports in 2024-25 (up from <2% before the invasion)
• Projected trajectory: Import dependence expected to rise to ~92% by 2035 despite renewable energy push (because demand for petroleum in industry, aviation, petrochemicals grows faster than EV displacement)

Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) — India's emergency oil buffer:

• As of March 2025: 21.4 million barrels held (64% of capacity; targeting full capacity by 2026)
• Covers approximately ~9.5 days of India's consumption — significantly below IEA recommended 90 days for member countries
• Phase II expansion (approved 2021): Chandikhol (Odisha) + expanded Padur = additional 6.5 MMT capacity; PPP mode implementation

COP29 (Baku, Azerbaijan, November 2024) — The Coal Debate:

• 25 countries + European Union launched a "No New Unabated Coal Power" pledge at COP29
• India, China, and Saudi Arabia refused to sign — a significant bloc resistance
• India's official position: India does not oppose phasing down coal specifically, but opposes singling out coal while other fossil fuels (oil, gas) escape scrutiny. India argues: (1) all fossil fuels should be treated equally; (2) developed nations must provide financial support (the $300 billion/year climate finance deal at COP29) before demanding phase-down commitments; (3) India has the right to use its own coal resources for development while simultaneously investing in renewables at the world's fastest pace
• India's internal coal situation: Coal production crossed 1,047.67 MT in FY 2024-25 — first time ever above 1 billion tonnes — reflecting the contradiction: renewable build-up is fastest in the world AND coal production is also at record highs (because electricity demand grows faster than renewables can supply)

UPSC synthesis: India's energy security dilemma is a GS3 Mains theme: 88.2% oil import dependence (all-time high) + record coal production (1,047 MT) + fastest renewable expansion globally — all simultaneously. Key exam facts: crude import dependence = 88.2% (FY 2024-25, all-time high); domestic production = 28.70 MT; Russia = 36%+ of imports; SPR = 5.33 MMT (Vizag + Mangaluru + Padur); 9.5 days cover; Phase II = 6.5 MMT more (Chandikhol + Padur); COP29 Baku November 2024 — "no new unabated coal" pledge; India-China-Saudi Arabia refused to sign; India's argument = all fossil fuels, not just coal, should be treated equally.