BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: The Indian National Movement is the single most heavily tested topic in UPSC GS1 modern Indian history. Every phase — INC founding, Moderate–Extremist split, Swadeshi, Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India, and Partition — produces Prelims and Mains questions every year. This chapter provides the chronological spine on which all other movement topics hang. Key dates, leaders, and events must be memorised precisely, as Prelims traps often involve one-year or one-name errors.
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
Phases of the National Movement
| Phase | Period | Key Demand | Method | Leaders |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Moderate Phase | 1885–1905 | Reforms within British system; Indianisation of ICS; reduce military expenditure | Petition, resolution, deputation | Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee |
| Extremist / Assertive Phase | 1905–1919 | Swaraj (self-rule) as immediate goal | Mass mobilisation, boycott, passive resistance | Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal) |
| Gandhian Phase | 1919–1947 | Full independence (Purna Swaraj from 1929) | Satyagraha, non-violence, non-cooperation, civil disobedience | Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad, Bose |
| Revolutionary Nationalism | 1907 onwards (parallel stream) | Immediate armed revolution; overthrow of British rule | Bombings, assassinations, armed resistance | Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Chandrashekhar Azad, Khudiram Bose |
Major Mass Movements — Quick Facts
| Movement | Date | Trigger | Key Events | End / Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Swadeshi Movement | 1905–1911 | Partition of Bengal (Oct 16, 1905) | Boycott of British goods; Rakhi Bandhan; Swadeshi industries | Partition annulled 1911 (Delhi Durbar) |
| Non-Cooperation Movement | 1920–1922 | Jallianwala Bagh (1919); Rowlatt Act; Khilafat | Boycott of councils, courts, schools; Khilafat alliance | Called off after Chauri Chaura (Feb 4, 1922) |
| Civil Disobedience Movement | 1930–1934 | Salt tax; colonial economic exploitation | Dandi March (Mar 12–Apr 6, 1930); Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) | Suspended after Gandhi-Irwin Pact; relaunched; Second RTC failure |
| Quit India Movement | Aug 8, 1942 | WWII; Cripps Mission failure | "Do or Die"; Gandhi arrested Aug 9; underground movement | Suppressed by 1944; but final push for independence |
Key Legislation of the Colonial Period
| Act | Year | Key Provisions | UPSC Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms) | 1909 | Separate electorates for Muslims; enlarged legislative councils | First instance of communal representation — major Prelims fact |
| Government of India Act (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) | 1919 | Dyarchy in provinces; central legislature bicameral; "responsible government" in provinces | Rowlatt Act same year — context of Non-Cooperation |
| Government of India Act | 1935 | Provincial autonomy; federal structure; bicameral legislature; Burma separated | Basis of Indian Constitution (largest single source) |
| Indian Independence Act | 1947 | Created India and Pakistan as dominions; passed by British Parliament July 18, 1947 | Final legal instrument of independence |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
Background: Why Nationalism Arose
Nationalism: A political ideology that holds that a people sharing common history, language, or culture constitute a "nation" and should have their own state. Indian nationalism was complex — it had to forge unity across enormous regional, linguistic, caste, and religious diversity, while defining itself against British colonial rule.
Several structural factors created the conditions for Indian nationalism:
Western education: The colonial education system (Macaulay's Minute, 1835; English medium education) created a class of Indians fluent in English and familiar with Enlightenment ideas — liberty, equality, representative government, rights. This educated class began to ask why these principles applied in Britain but not in India.
Printing press and newspapers: The spread of newspapers (Kesari, Amrita Bazar Patrika, The Hindu) created a public sphere — a space where Indians from different parts of the country could read shared arguments, share grievances, and imagine themselves as part of a common political community.
Railways: The railway network (begun 1853) connected India physically — allowing leaders to travel and organise, and creating economic grievances (British goods undersold Indian manufacturers transported via rail).
Census and caste/religious identity: The colonial census hardened religious and caste identities. At the same time, it gave Indians a way to count themselves and assert demographic weight.
Economic drain: Dadabhai Naoroji's "Drain of Wealth" theory (1867) argued systematically that colonial rule transferred India's resources to Britain — creating a shared economic grievance across classes.
Founding of the Indian National Congress (1885)
Indian National Congress (INC): Founded on December 28, 1885, at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. The first session was presided over by Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee (W.C. Bonnerjee). A.O. Hume, a retired Indian Civil Service (ICS) officer, was the key organiser. The INC began as a moderate, constitutional body but evolved into the mass vehicle of Indian independence.
Founding facts (Prelims-critical):
- Date: December 28, 1885
- Venue: Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay
- First President: Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee
- Organiser: Allan Octavian Hume (retired ICS; wrote to graduates of Calcutta University urging organisation)
- Early prominent members: Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji (first Muslim president, 1887), Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Hume's motive: Hume believed a safety valve for discontent was needed — an organisation that could channel Indian grievances constitutionally and prevent violent rebellion. Nationalists later debated whether this "safety valve theory" diminished the INC's credentials as a genuine independence movement.
Moderates (1885–1905)
The Moderate Programme: The Moderates believed British rule could be reformed from within. Their methods were petitions to the British Parliament and the Viceroy, passing resolutions at INC sessions, sending deputations to London, and publishing newspapers and pamphlets. Their demands were modest by later standards: Indianisation of the Indian Civil Service (holding the ICS exam in India, not just London), reduction of military expenditure (which burdened Indian taxpayers), expansion of legislative councils (allowing more Indian representation), and development of Indian industries.
Key Moderate leaders:
- Dadabhai Naoroji ("Grand Old Man of India"): Formulated "Drain of Wealth" theory; first Indian elected to British Parliament (1892, Finsbury, London).
- Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Gandhi's political guru; founded Servants of India Society (1905); believed in social reform alongside political reform; favoured incremental constitutional progress.
- Pherozeshah Mehta: Dominant figure in Bombay; called the "Lion of Bombay"; skilled parliamentarian.
Why Moderates failed to achieve more: The British government ignored most petitions. After two decades of constitutional agitation, India had little to show. This failure created the opening for the Extremists.
Extremists / Assertive Nationalists (1905 Onwards)
Lal-Bal-Pal: The troika of Extremist leaders — Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Pal (Bipin Chandra Pal, Bengal). Their demand was immediate Swaraj (self-rule), not gradual reform. Their method was mass mobilisation — using popular festivals (Tilak revived Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji Jayanti as political gatherings), the vernacular press, and boycott of British goods.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak's famous declaration: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it." Tilak used popular religious and historical symbols — the Maratha warrior Shivaji, the Hindu festival of Ganesh Chaturthi — to reach ordinary people beyond the English-educated elite. He edited the newspapers Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English).
Surat Split (1907): At the Surat session of the INC, Moderates and Extremists split over the question of method and the presidency of the session. The split weakened the Congress for several years.
Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911)
Partition of Bengal (October 16, 1905): Lord Curzon divided Bengal — then the largest province of British India — ostensibly for administrative efficiency. The partition created a Muslim-majority eastern Bengal (with Assam) and a Hindu-majority western Bengal. Nationalists saw it as a deliberate attempt to divide Bengalis on religious lines and weaken the nationalist movement, which was strongest in Bengal.
The response — Swadeshi: The Swadeshi movement (Swadeshi = "of one's own country") called for:
- Boycott of British goods — especially Manchester cloth. Bonfires of foreign cloth were lit.
- Promotion of Indian-made goods — Indian textiles, Indian soap, Indian matches.
- Rakhi Bandhan: On the day of partition (October 16, 1905), Hindus and Muslims tied rakhis on each other's wrists as a symbol of solidarity.
- Swadeshi enterprises: New Indian mills, banks, and insurance companies were founded.
The partition was annulled in 1911 at the Delhi Durbar — a concession to the massive and sustained agitation.
Revolutionary Nationalism
While the INC pursued constitutional and non-violent methods, a parallel stream of revolutionary nationalism emerged:
- Khudiram Bose (1889–1908): Threw a bomb at a carriage carrying a British judge (Muzaffarpur, 1908); hanged at age 18.
- Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru: Members of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly (April 8, 1929) — not to kill, but to make the deaf hear (they surrendered). Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were hanged on March 23, 1931.
- Chandrashekhar Azad: Killed himself rather than be captured alive, Allahabad (February 27, 1931).
- Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA: Bose broke with the INC's non-violent approach; escaped to Germany and then Japan; organised the Indian National Army (INA / Azad Hind Fauj) from Indian prisoners of war in Southeast Asia; INA trials (1945) united Indian opinion against the British.
Gandhian Phase — Satyagraha in India
Satyagraha: Literally "truth-force" or "soul-force." Gandhi's method of non-violent resistance — refusing to cooperate with unjust laws and accepting the legal consequences (arrest, imprisonment) without retaliation. The moral power of suffering, Gandhi believed, would convert the oppressor or expose the injustice to the world.
Gandhi's early Indian satyagrahas:
- Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Bihar; indigo farmers forced to grow indigo under the "tinkathia" system. Gandhi's first satyagraha in India; resulted in the Champaran Agrarian Act (1918) abolishing the tinkathia system.
- Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Gujarat; peasants demanded revenue remission during famine. Patel played a key role.
- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Mill workers' strike for higher wages; Gandhi fasted in solidarity.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)
Context: The Rowlatt Act (1919) — allowing detention without trial — and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919, Amritsar — General Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful crowd; approximately 379 killed officially, thousands more by other estimates) shattered Indian faith in British justice. Gandhi formed a Khilafat alliance with Muslim leaders (the Ali brothers — Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali Johar) who opposed British dismemberment of the Ottoman Caliphate.
Programme of Non-Cooperation:
- Surrender of titles and honorary offices
- Boycott of government schools, colleges, and courts
- Boycott of foreign cloth
- Non-payment of taxes (in later stages)
- Nationwide hartals
End — Chauri Chaura (February 4, 1922): A mob in Chauri Chaura village, Gorakhpur district, UP, attacked and set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi, horrified by the violence, unilaterally called off the entire movement — a decision bitterly opposed by many nationalists including Subhas Chandra Bose and C.R. Das.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)
Lahore Session (December 1929): The INC, under Jawaharlal Nehru's presidency, passed the Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) resolution. January 26, 1930 was declared Independence Day — celebrated across India as a pledge. This is why January 26 was chosen as Republic Day in 1950.
Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha):
- Date: March 12 – April 6, 1930
- Route: Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad) to Dandi (coastal village, Navsari district, Gujarat)
- Distance: 241 miles (approximately 385 km)
- Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up salt from the sea — an act that made the colonial salt monopoly (and the salt tax) a symbol of all colonial exploitation.
- The march triggered nationwide civil disobedience — salt making along coasts, boycott of foreign cloth and liquor, refusal to pay revenue.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Gandhi agreed to suspend civil disobedience; attend the Second Round Table Conference in London; the government released political prisoners and allowed salt making on the coast. Gandhi attended the Second RTC (London, September–December 1931) but returned without any agreement.
Round Table Conferences:
- First RTC: November 1930 – January 1931 (INC boycotted; Gandhi in jail)
- Second RTC: September–December 1931 (Gandhi attended as sole INC representative)
- Third RTC: November–December 1932 (INC boycotted; Gandhi in jail)
Quit India Movement (August 8–9, 1942)
Context: World War II; the Cripps Mission (March–April 1942) offered dominion status after the war, which the INC rejected ("a post-dated cheque on a failing bank" — Gandhi). With Japanese forces at India's border, Gandhi demanded immediate British withdrawal.
Key facts:
- Gandhi's call: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro) — at the Bombay session of AICC, August 8, 1942
- Gandhi and entire INC leadership arrested on the morning of August 9, 1942 (before they could organise)
- August 9 = National Revolution Day / Quit India Day
- The leaderless movement became an underground rebellion — JP Narayan (Jayaprakash Narayan), Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali (hoisted the Congress flag at Gowalia Tank, Bombay) led underground operations
- The British suppressed the movement by 1944 — 100,000 arrested, mass shootings, villages bombed
The Quit India Movement, though militarily suppressed, demonstrated that continued colonial rule was untenable. It was the last major mass movement before independence.
Muslim League, Pakistan Demand, and Partition
- All-India Muslim League: Founded 1906 at Dhaka; organised by Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and other Muslim leaders, partly to represent Muslim interests separately from the INC.
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Two-Nation Theory: Muslims and Hindus are two separate nations; a united India would mean permanent Hindu domination of Muslims.
- Lahore Resolution (March 23, 1940): The Muslim League demanded independent states in the Muslim-majority north-western and eastern zones of India. This date is celebrated as Pakistan Day.
- Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Proposed a united India with a federal structure and autonomy for provinces; both INC and League initially accepted, then the negotiation collapsed.
- Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946): Jinnah called for Direct Action — resulted in the Great Calcutta Killings (thousands killed in Hindu-Muslim violence); set off a chain of communal massacres across India.
Independence and Partition:
- Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Partition of India into two dominions — India and Pakistan.
- Indian Independence Act 1947: Passed by British Parliament on July 18, 1947; came into force August 14–15, 1947.
- Pakistan: Independent August 14, 1947.
- India: Independent August 15, 1947.
- Radcliffe Line: Boundary between India and Pakistan drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe (who had never visited India). Announced August 17, 1947 — two days after independence.
UPSC GS1 — Partition and Its Legacy: Partition caused one of the largest forced migrations in human history — approximately 14 million people displaced; estimates of deaths range from 200,000 to 2 million in communal violence. UPSC Mains has asked about the causes of Partition (Two-Nation Theory, Congress–League negotiations, British role, communal politics of the 1930s–40s) and its consequences (refugee crisis, communal identity in post-independence politics, Kashmir dispute).
[Additional] 11a. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 1919 — Complete Facts, Hunter Committee, and Udham Singh
The chapter covers the massacre briefly but lacks the precise forensic facts, the Hunter Committee's findings and limitations, and the Udham Singh connection — all directly tested in UPSC GS1 (Modern Indian History).
Key Terms — Jallianwala Bagh:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Rowlatt Act (March 1919) | Officially "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919"; passed March 10, 1919; allowed detention without trial, trial without jury for suspected revolutionaries; nicknamed "Black Act"; triggered nationwide protests — first mass civil disobedience |
| Jallianwala Bagh | An enclosed public garden in Amritsar, Punjab; walled on three sides with only one main exit; site of the April 13, 1919 massacre |
| General Reginald Dyer | Brigadier-General; ordered the firing without warning; issued crawling order on Kucha Kurrichhan lane; relieved of command after Hunter Report; died 1927 |
| Hunter Committee (1919) | Officially "Disorders Inquiry Committee"; set up October 14, 1919; chaired by Lord William Hunter (Scottish advocate); submitted report March 8, 1920; found Dyer's action "excessive and inhuman" but did NOT recommend criminal prosecution |
| Udham Singh | Punjab revolutionary; present at Jallianwala Bagh as a teenager (reportedly as a water-boy); assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor of Punjab who approved Dyer's actions) at Caxton Hall, London, on March 13, 1940; hanged July 31, 1940 at Pentonville Prison |
[Additional] Jallianwala Bagh Massacre — Complete Facts and Aftermath (GS1 — Modern Indian History):
Context — Rowlatt Act and protest:
| Event | Date | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Rowlatt Act passed | March 10, 1919 | No defence, no appeal, no jury for political suspects; Gandhi called it "Black Act" |
| Gandhi's hartal call | April 6, 1919 | First all-India hartal (strike); became violent in some cities |
| Amritsar unrest | April 10, 1919 | Two Congress leaders (Dr Satyapal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew) arrested and deported; Amritsar crowd attacked banks and killed 5 Europeans; British declared martial law |
| Baisakhi (harvest festival) | April 13, 1919 | Thousands gathered at Jallianwala Bagh (also Sikh New Year — many were pilgrims, not protesters) |
The massacre — precise facts:
| Parameter | Official/Verified Detail |
|---|---|
| Date | April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi) |
| Commander | Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer |
| Troops | 90 soldiers (50 Gurkha, 25 Baluchi, 25 Sikh — all Indian soldiers under British command) + 2 armoured cars (couldn't enter the narrow lane) |
| Warning given | None — Dyer marched in and ordered firing immediately |
| Rounds fired | 1,650 rounds (later confirmed by Dyer himself to the Hunter Committee) |
| Duration | Approximately 10 minutes |
| Official death toll (British) | 379 killed (listed by name in official records) |
| Estimated actual deaths | ~1,000–2,000 (Indian National Congress estimate: ~1,000; some historians suggest higher; many bodies were removed by families overnight before official counting) |
| Injured | ~1,200 officially injured |
| Escape | The only exit was blocked by Dyer's troops; people jumped into a well (Shaheed Kuan — "Martyrs' Well") — 120 bodies retrieved from the well |
| Dyer's stated justification | "To strike terror throughout the Punjab" — his own words to the Hunter Committee |
Dyer's additional actions:
| Action | Detail |
|---|---|
| Crawling Order | Kucha Kurrichhan lane (where a British woman missionary, Miss Sherwood, had been attacked April 10) — any Indian entering this lane must crawl on all fours; order in force for ~1 week |
| Aerial bombing | Gujranwala was bombed from the air by the RAF on April 14, 1919 — first time in history that an air force bombed its own administered territory's civilian population |
| Continued martial law | Martial law applied across Punjab; floggings, public humiliations |
Hunter Committee (Disorders Inquiry Committee):
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| Constituted | October 14, 1919 by Viceroy Chelmsford |
| Chair | Lord William Hunter (former Solicitor-General of Scotland) |
| Members | 8 total — 4 British (including Lord Hunter) + 4 Indians (Jagat Narayan, Sir Chimanlal Setalvad, Sahib Singh Hakim, Sultan Ahmed) |
| Report submitted | March 8, 1920 |
| Finding on Dyer | "Grave error" — excessive and inhuman; Dyer had created "a reign of terror" in Amritsar |
| Finding on crawling order | Condemned it as "humiliating" and "un-English" |
| Action against Dyer | Dyer was asked to resign (NOT court-martialled); given half-pay pension; allowed to keep his rank |
| Indian members' dissent | Setalvad, Narayan etc. wrote a minority report that was sharper — called for stronger action; their report condemned the entire Punjab administration |
British public opinion split:
| Camp | Position | Key figure |
|---|---|---|
| Pro-Dyer | "He saved India"; House of Lords passed a motion of thanks; Morning Post raised £26,000 for Dyer ("The Man Who Saved India Fund") | Morning Post editors, many Conservatives |
| Anti-Dyer | "Massacre"; Dyer must be punished; House of Commons censured Dyer | Winston Churchill (at this point, Secretary of State for War — one of his few pro-Indian moments): "a monstrous event, a record of terroristic violence" |
Udham Singh — assassination of O'Dwyer:
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| Udham Singh | Born December 26, 1899, Sunam, Punjab (now Sangrur district, Haryana border) |
| At Jallianwala Bagh | Present on April 13, 1919 (reportedly as a volunteer water distributor for the gathering); survived the massacre; reportedly swore vengeance |
| Target | Michael O'Dwyer — Lieutenant Governor of Punjab (April 1913 – May 1919); had approved martial law and Dyer's actions; publicly defended Dyer even after the Hunter Committee condemned him |
| Date of assassination | March 13, 1940 |
| Location | Caxton Hall, Westminster, London — O'Dwyer was attending a joint meeting of the East India Association and the Central Asian Society |
| Method | Shot O'Dwyer twice (O'Dwyer died immediately); also wounded Lord Zetland (Secretary of State for India), Lord Lamington, and Sir Louis Dane |
| Arrest, trial | Tried at Old Bailey; represented himself; refused to plead mitigation; speech: "I did it because I had a grudge against him. He deserved it. He was the real culprit. He wanted to crush the spirit of my people, so I have crushed him." |
| Execution | Hanged July 31, 1940 at Pentonville Prison, London |
| Remains | Returned to India in 1974; cremated with honours at Sunam, Punjab |
| Bhagat Singh connection | Bhagat Singh was 12 years old during the massacre (born September 28, 1907); deeply affected; walked to the massacre site; collected blood-soaked soil in a bottle — this formative memory is often cited as a turning point in his political consciousness |
UPSC synthesis: Jallianwala Bagh = GS1 Modern India. Key exam facts: Date = April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi); commander = General Reginald Dyer; troops = 90 soldiers (Gurkha + Baluchi + Sikh); rounds = 1,650 rounds; duration = ~10 minutes; no warning given; official dead = 379; Martyrs' Well (Shaheed Kuan) = 120 bodies; Hunter Committee = constituted October 14, 1919 = chair Lord William Hunter = report March 8, 1920 = "grave error" = Dyer resigned (NOT court-martialled); crawling order at Kucha Kurrichhan; aerial bombing of Gujranwala (April 14, 1919, first-ever civilian bombing by a government); Udham Singh = assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (NOT Dyer — O'Dwyer was the Lt. Governor; Dyer was the general who ordered firing; Udham Singh shot O'Dwyer) = March 13, 1940 = Caxton Hall London = hanged July 31, 1940. Prelims trap: Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer NOT Dyer (Dyer = the general who ordered the firing; O'Dwyer = Lt. Governor who approved martial law; very commonly confused); the official death toll = 379 (NOT 1,000 — 379 is the official British figure with names listed; 1,000 is the INC/commonly cited estimate; UPSC Prelims asks for the official figure = 379); Rowlatt Act passed = March 10, 1919 (NOT March 18 — the Rowlatt Act date is frequently mis-stated; it received assent on March 21 but was passed March 10); Hunter Committee chaired by Lord William Hunter (NOT Lord Montagu — Montagu was Secretary of State for India at the time; the Committee was chaired by Hunter).
[Additional] 11b. Bhagat Singh, HSRA, and the Revolutionary Nationalist Tradition
The chapter covers Bhagat Singh briefly as part of a list of leaders, but lacks the specific sequence of events, the ideological content of the revolutionary tradition, and the complete HSRA story — tested in UPSC GS1 (Modern Indian History) and essays.
Key Terms — Bhagat Singh and HSRA:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| HSRA | Hindustan Socialist Republican Association — founded at Kanpur (Ferozeshah Kotla, Delhi) in 1924 by Sachindra Nath Sanyal; reorganised 1928 with Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sukhdev Thapar, Rajguru (Shivaram Rajguru) as core leaders; adopted "Socialist" in the name in 1928 |
| HRA | Hindustan Republican Association — the earlier name before 1928; same organisation; founded 1924 by Sachindra Nath Sanyal |
| Kakori Train Robbery | August 9, 1925 — HRA (Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad et al.) looted a train carrying government treasury at Kakori (Uttar Pradesh); 4 hanged (Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Lahiri, Roshan Singh); Azad escaped |
| Naujawan Bharat Sabha | Established by Bhagat Singh in March 1926 at Lahore — youth organisation linked to HSRA ideology; separate from INC; advocated socialist revolution |
| "Why I Am an Atheist" | Essay written by Bhagat Singh in October 1930 while in Lahore Central Jail (written October 5-6, 1930); published in The People newspaper; his most famous philosophical writing |
[Additional] Bhagat Singh, HSRA, and Revolutionary Tradition (GS1 — Modern Indian History):
HSRA — founding and ideology:
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| Original name | Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) — 1924 |
| Founded | 1924 at Kanpur (Delhi meeting Ferozeshah Kotla); by Sachindra Nath Sanyal |
| Reorganised as HSRA | 1928 — "Socialist" added under Bhagat Singh's influence; accepted Marxist class analysis alongside nationalist revolution |
| Key leaders | Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sukhdev Thapar, Shivaram Rajguru, Batukeshwar Dutt |
| Ideology | Armed revolution; socialist republic; international solidarity; NOT Gandhi's non-violence; drew from Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Italian nationalist Mazzini, Russian Bolsheviks, and Irish freedom fighters |
| Finance | Armed robbery of government funds (Kakori 1925); believed state funds could legitimately be used for revolution |
Sequence of key events:
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| October 30, 1928 | Simon Commission arrives in Lahore; Lala Lajpat Rai leads protest march; British police superintendent James Scott orders baton charge; Lala Lajpat Rai beaten on chest |
| November 17, 1928 | Lala Lajpat Rai dies (attributed by HSRA to injuries from the lathi charge — though British officials denied direct causation) |
| December 17, 1928 | HSRA revenge operation: Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Chandrashekhar Azad attempt to shoot James Scott (actual attacker); mistake — Saunders killed (John Poyntz Saunders, Deputy Superintendent of Police); Azad provides cover; all three escape from Lahore |
| April 8, 1929 | Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt throw two smoke bombs in Central Legislative Assembly, Delhi (during budget session); leaflets thrown ("deaf ears" speech); bombs designed NOT to kill — purpose was to be heard ("It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear"); both arrested deliberately (refused to flee) |
| June 12, 1929 | Trial begins for the Assembly bomb case |
| July 1929 | Jatin Das begins hunger strike in jail demanding political prisoner status; dies September 13, 1929 after 63 days — becomes martyr figure |
| October 5-6, 1930 | Bhagat Singh writes "Why I Am an Atheist" in Lahore Central Jail |
| October 7, 1930 | Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru sentenced to death in the Lahore Conspiracy Case (for Saunders murder) |
| February 1931 | Gandhi-Irwin Pact negotiations — INC asked Gandhi to include commutation of death sentences in negotiations; Gandhi did not make it a deal-breaker |
| March 23, 1931 | Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru hanged at 7:30 PM, Lahore Central Jail; execution secretly brought forward by 11 hours (supposed to be March 24); bodies smuggled out and cremated at Hussainiwala (now Ferozepur border) |
Ages at execution:
| Person | Born | Age at Execution |
|---|---|---|
| Bhagat Singh | September 28, 1907 | 23 years |
| Sukhdev Thapar | May 15, 1907 | 23 years |
| Shivaram Rajguru | August 24, 1908 | 22 years |
Chandrashekhar Azad — separate fate:
| Parameter | Detail |
|---|---|
| Born | July 23, 1906, Bhabhra, Central India (now MP) |
| Real name | Chandrashekhar Tiwari — took alias "Azad" meaning "Free" |
| Vow | "I will never be captured alive; I will die free" |
| Death | February 27, 1931 — surrounded by police at Alfred Park, Allahabad (now Chandrashekhar Azad Park); fought a long gun battle; shot himself with his last bullet to fulfil his vow; died on the spot |
Bhagat Singh's ideology — key texts:
| Text | Date | Key Argument |
|---|---|---|
| "Why I Am an Atheist" | October 1930 | Rejected belief in God not from nihilism but from rationalism; "I am a man of reason; reason forbids me the luxury of faith without evidence" |
| Assembly bombing leaflet (April 8, 1929) | 1929 | "It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear. Let this be our message to the deaf ears of the British Government." Signed by HSRA |
| Letters from jail | 1929-31 | Called for complete independence, socialist economy, end of communal politics |
The Gandhi-HSRA relationship:
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Ideological disagreement | HSRA believed Gandhi's non-violence would not achieve complete independence; accepted "revolutionary violence" against the state (NOT against civilians) |
| Respect | Bhagat Singh respected Gandhi's mass mobilisation capacity; disagreed with strategy |
| Gandhi's response | Gandhi condemned the Saunders killing; called it "an insane act"; opposed commuting death sentence through any "deal" — wanted it commuted on moral grounds independently |
| INC's position | INC did not officially endorse HSRA's methods; Congress formally distanced from revolutionary violence |
| Popular response | Bhagat Singh became a folk hero; his execution caused widespread anger at both British government AND Gandhi (for not securing a commutation) — complex popular reaction |
UPSC synthesis: Bhagat Singh/HSRA = GS1 Modern India. Key exam facts: HSRA founded = 1924 as HRA (Sachindra Nath Sanyal); "Socialist" added = 1928; Lala Lajpat Rai beaten = October 30, 1928; died = November 17, 1928; Saunders killed = December 17, 1928 (NOT Scott — Scott was the target; Saunders was killed by mistake; this distinction is tested); Assembly bomb = April 8, 1929 with Batukeshwar Dutt (NOT with Rajguru or Azad); Jatin Das hunger strike = died September 13, 1929 after 63 days; "Why I Am an Atheist" = October 1930; hanged = March 23, 1931 at 7:30 PM; ages: Bhagat Singh 23, Sukhdev 23, Rajguru 22; Azad died = February 27, 1931 at Alfred Park Allahabad (shot himself). Prelims trap: HSRA stands for Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (NOT Association for... or Hindu...; the "Socialist" was added in 1928); Bhagat Singh's target was James Scott (NOT Saunders — Saunders was killed by mistake; Scott was the superintendent who ordered the Lajpat Rai lathi charge); Assembly bomb thrown by Bhagat Singh + Batukeshwar Dutt (NOT Rajguru — Rajguru was not present at the Assembly bomb; he was hanged for the Saunders killing; Batukeshwar Dutt was the co-bomber at the Assembly); Azad died at Alfred Park Allahabad = February 27, 1931 (BEFORE the March 23 hangings of Bhagat Singh/Sukhdev/Rajguru — Azad died first).
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- INC founded on December 28, 1885 — not 1886 and not 1884. First session at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay — not Calcutta.
- First INC President: Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee — NOT A.O. Hume (Hume was organiser, not president).
- A.O. Hume was a retired ICS officer — not an army officer, not a Governor.
- Dadabhai Naoroji was the first Indian elected to British Parliament (1892) — also the author of "Drain of Wealth" / "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India."
- Partition of Bengal: October 16, 1905; annulled 1911 (not 1905 and not 1912).
- Lal-Bal-Pal: Lala Lajpat Rai = Punjab; Bal Gangadhar Tilak = Maharashtra; Bipin Chandra Pal = Bengal.
- Chauri Chaura: February 4, 1922; 22 policemen killed; in Gorakhpur, UP. Gandhi called off Non-Cooperation (not Civil Disobedience) after this.
- Champaran Satyagraha 1917 — Gandhi's first satyagraha in India.
- Dandi March: March 12 to April 6, 1930; 241 miles; from Sabarmati to Dandi (Gujarat).
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact: March 5, 1931 (not February).
- Purna Swaraj resolution: Lahore Session, December 1929; president Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Quit India: August 8 (resolution passed at AICC) and August 9 (arrests, National Revolution Day), 1942.
- Lahore Resolution (Pakistan demand): March 23, 1940 (not 1941).
- Direct Action Day: August 16, 1946 (not 1947).
- Radcliffe Line announced: August 17, 1947 — after independence.
- Morley-Minto Reforms: Government of India Act 1909 — separate electorates for Muslims.
- Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: Government of India Act 1919 — dyarchy in provinces.
- Government of India Act 1935: Basis of India's Constitution; provincial autonomy (not full responsible government at Centre).
Practice Questions
Prelims:
The 'Drain of Wealth' theory was propounded by:
(a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(b) Dadabhai Naoroji
(c) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(d) Bipin Chandra PalWhich of the following events led Gandhi to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922?
(a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
(b) The arrest of the Ali brothers
(c) The Chauri Chaura incident
(d) The failure of the Khilafat MovementConsider the following statements about the Dandi March (1930):
- It started from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930.
- It covered a distance of about 241 miles.
- The march culminated at the coastal village of Dandi in Gujarat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
- It started from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930.
The 'Two-Nation Theory', the ideological basis for the demand for Pakistan, was associated with:
(a) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
(b) Liaquat Ali Khan
(c) Muhammad Ali Jinnah
(d) Aga Khan III
Mains:
Analyse the factors that led to the rise of extremism within the Indian National Congress after 1905. How did the Swadeshi Movement transform the nature of Indian nationalism? (CSE Mains 2018, GS Paper 1, 15 marks)
Gandhi's decision to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement after Chauri Chaura has been both praised and criticised. Examine the arguments on both sides. (CSE Mains 2020, GS Paper 1, 10 marks)
"The Quit India Movement of 1942, though suppressed militarily, was the decisive turning point in India's struggle for independence." Critically evaluate this statement. (CSE Mains 2022, GS Paper 1, 15 marks)
