Rural Administration

UPSC GS2 + GS3 — Land records policy:

India has historically had poor, inaccurate, and paper-based land records — leading to widespread litigation, corruption (Patwaris demanding bribes), and farmer distress.

Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP):

• Centrally Sponsored Scheme (2008; revamped 2016 as DILRMP)
• Objective: Computerise all land records; issue Real-Time Record of Rights (RoR); prevent fraud
• Bhulekh portals (state-wise): Online land records accessible to citizens (UP Bhulekh, Maharashtra Mahabhulekh, etc.)
• SVAMITVA Scheme (2020): Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas; uses drones to map rural properties (houses, not agricultural land); issues Property Cards to rural households; helps get bank loans against rural property; over 2.42 crore property cards distributed as of April 2025 (PIB)
• NAKSHA: Cadastral (field-level) maps digitised

Land acquisition and disputes:

• Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act 2013 (LARR Act): Replaced colonial Land Acquisition Act 1894; mandates consent of 70–80% landowners, Social Impact Assessment, enhanced compensation (4x in rural, 2x in urban)
• Land disputes → District Courts → High Court → Supreme Court; often take decades

[Additional] BNS, BNSS, and BSA — Key Changes for UPSC (GS2 — Polity / Governance / Internal Security):

BNSS — Key changes (new CrPC):

BNS — Key changes (new IPC):

BSA — Key changes (new Indian Evidence Act):

UPSC synthesis: Three new criminal laws = GS2 Polity + Governance. Key exam facts: Effective from July 1, 2024; BNS replaced IPC 1860 (358 vs 511 sections); BNSS replaced CrPC 1973 (531 vs 484 sections); BSA replaced Indian Evidence Act 1872 (170 sections); BNS Section 377 = deleted (not replaced — just gone); Sedition = not retained as sedition = replaced by BNS Section 152 (narrower); new offences in BNS = organised crime (S.111), terrorism (S.113), hit and run (S.106), mob lynching; BNSS = Zero FIR codified + e-FIR (sign in 3 days) + audio-video recording of search mandatory (S.105) + forensics mandatory for 7+ year offences (S.176) + states get 5 years to notify S.176; trial in absentia = 90 days wait; chargesheet = 60/90 days from arrest; BSA = electronic records now primary evidence (S.57); dual-signature certificate = two signatories (S.63). Prelims trap: IPC was of 1860 (NOT 1947); CrPC was of 1973 (NOT 1898 — the original CrPC was 1898, then revised 1973; it's the 1973 version that BNSS replaced); sedition is NOT in BNS — it is replaced by Section 152 (a different, narrower offence — NOT the same as sedition); BSA changed electronic records from secondary to primary evidence (the direction of change matters for MCQs); forensics mandate under S.176 BNSS has a 5-year state notification window — it is not immediately enforceable on July 1, 2024.

[Additional] ULPIN (Bhu-Aadhaar) — Design, Implementation, and Significance (GS3 — Land Reform / GS2 — Governance / E-Governance):

ULPIN — Design:

Implementation status (as of October 2024):

ULPIN vs Aadhaar seeding — two distinct DILRMP components:

• ULPIN identifies the land parcel — assigns a unique ID to the piece of land
• Aadhaar seeding links the landowner's identity (Aadhaar number) to the land record — verifies who owns which ULPIN-tagged parcel
• Together: ULPIN + Aadhaar seeding = a digital record with unique parcel ID AND verified owner identity = reduces fraud, impersonation, duplicate claims

How ULPIN transforms land governance:

DigiLocker integration: Digitised land records stored in the land records database can be accessed through DigiLocker using the landowner's Aadhaar credentials. This allows banks and financial institutions to use digital land records as valid proof for credit access — eliminating the need for physical Jamabandi/RoR documents. The ULPIN acts as a key to access the specific parcel's records.

Connection to SVAMITVA Scheme: SVAMITVA maps rural inhabited (abadi) land (houses, not agricultural land) using drones → issues Property Cards. DILRMP/ULPIN covers agricultural and other rural land (khasra, khatauni). Together, SVAMITVA + DILRMP + ULPIN are completing the full digitisation of rural land records — agricultural + residential.

UPSC synthesis: ULPIN = GS3 Land Reform + GS2 Governance. Key exam facts: ULPIN = 14-digit alphanumeric unique ID for each land parcel = called Bhu-Aadhaar = generated from geo-coordinates (longitude + latitude) of parcel vertices = international standards (ECCMA + OGC); nodal ministry = Ministry of Rural Development (DoLR); technical agency = NIC; part of DILRMP (NOT a standalone scheme); announced = October 2020; rolled out in 29 states/UTs; 8.4 crore of 28.72 crore parcels covered (~30%) as of October 2024; 95% of rural records digitised (separately); target = March 2026; ULPIN identifies the parcel; Aadhaar seeding (separate) identifies the owner; DigiLocker integration allows digital land records for instant bank loan processing. Prelims trap: ULPIN is NOT Aadhaar for owners — it is Aadhaar for land parcels (the "Bhu" in Bhu-Aadhaar = land); the 14-digit number is derived from geo-coordinates (NOT from administrative district/tehsil codes); ULPIN is a component of DILRMP (NOT a separate standalone scheme); SVAMITVA and ULPIN/DILRMP cover different types of rural land (SVAMITVA = residential/abadi land; DILRMP = agricultural/other land).