Introduction
India is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world, hosting approximately 7--8% of all recorded species globally despite occupying only 2.4% of the world's land area. Four of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots lie partly or wholly within Indian territory. Conservation of this biological wealth is governed by a robust framework of domestic legislation and international conventions.
Biodiversity Hotspots in India
A biodiversity hotspot must contain at least 1,500 endemic vascular plant species and must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation. Conservation International recognises 36 global hotspots; India hosts four.
| Hotspot | Indian States / Regions Covered | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Western Ghats | Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu | ~1,600 km stretch; UNESCO World Heritage Site; ~7,402 plant species (24 endemic genera); 508 bird species; 131 amphibian species (87% endemic) |
| The Himalayas | Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, NE hill states | ~10,000 plant species (~3,160 endemic); 300 mammal species (12 endemic); 980 bird species (15 endemic); 175 reptile species (48 endemic) |
| Indo-Burma | Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, parts of West Bengal | Extends into Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, southern China; rich freshwater biodiversity; over 13,500 plant species |
| Sundaland | Nicobar Islands (Indian portion) | Primarily covers Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java; ~25,000 vascular plant species (~15,000 endemic); India's Nicobar Islands form the northernmost extent |
IUCN Red List Categories
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies species into the following threat categories:
| Category | Abbreviation | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Extinct | EX | No known individuals remaining |
| Extinct in the Wild | EW | Survives only in captivity or cultivated settings |
| Critically Endangered | CR | Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild |
| Endangered | EN | Very high risk of extinction in the wild |
| Vulnerable | VU | High risk of extinction in the wild |
| Near Threatened | NT | Close to qualifying for a threatened category |
| Least Concern | LC | Widespread and abundant |
| Data Deficient | DD | Inadequate data to assess risk |
| Not Evaluated | NE | Not yet assessed against criteria |
Key Indian Species and Their IUCN Status
| Species | IUCN Status | Approximate Population / Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) | Endangered (EN) | 3,682 in India (2022 census); ~70% of global wild tigers |
| Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) | Endangered (EN) | ~27,000--30,000 in India; largest global population |
| Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) | Vulnerable (VU) | ~500 in India (Ladakh, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal) |
| Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) | Vulnerable (VU) | ~3,700 globally; majority in Kaziranga, Assam |
| Gangetic Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) | Endangered (EN) | National Aquatic Animal; ~1,800--2,000 |
| Lion-tailed Macaque | Endangered (EN) | Endemic to Western Ghats; ~4,000 |
| Great Indian Bustard | Critically Endangered (CR) | ~150 individuals; found in Rajasthan and Gujarat |
| Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) | Endangered (EN) | ~700 in Gir, Gujarat (2023 estimate) |
Protected Areas in India
National Parks
India has over 100 national parks covering approximately 44,403 sq km (about 1.35% of the country's geographical area). Key national parks include:
| National Park | State | Established | Key Species / Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jim Corbett | Uttarakhand | 1936 | India's first national park; Bengal Tiger |
| Kaziranga | Assam | 1974 | One-horned Rhinoceros; UNESCO World Heritage Site |
| Gir Forest | Gujarat | 1965 | Only wild habitat of Asiatic Lion |
| Sundarbans | West Bengal | 1984 | Royal Bengal Tiger; largest mangrove forest |
| Kanha | Madhya Pradesh | 1955 | Barasingha (hard-ground swamp deer) |
| Hemis | Ladakh | 1981 | Largest national park (~4,400 sq km); Snow Leopard |
| Periyar | Kerala | 1982 | Elephant and Tiger reserve; Western Ghats |
| Ranthambore | Rajasthan | 1980 | Bengal Tiger; historical ruins within park |
| Namdapha | Arunachal Pradesh | 1983 | Hoolock Gibbon; fourth-largest national park |
| Desert National Park | Rajasthan | 1992 | Great Indian Bustard; ~3,162 sq km |
Wildlife Sanctuaries
India has over 560 wildlife sanctuaries. Unlike national parks, limited human activities (grazing, timber collection) may be permitted in sanctuaries with the Chief Wildlife Warden's approval.
Tiger Reserves and Project Tiger
Project Tiger was launched on 1 April 1973 by the Government of India to protect the Bengal Tiger and its habitat. The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) oversees Project Tiger.
| Parameter | Details |
|---|---|
| Year of Launch | 1973 |
| Initial Reserves | 9 |
| Total Tiger Reserves (2025) | 58 (latest: Madhav Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh) |
| Tiger Population (2022 Census) | 3,682 |
| Tiger Population (2006 Census) | 1,411 |
| Governing Body | National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), est. 2005 under Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act |
| States with Most Reserves | Madhya Pradesh (9), Maharashtra (6) |
Important Tiger Reserves
| Tiger Reserve | State | Established | Notable Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jim Corbett | Uttarakhand | 1973 | First tiger reserve in India |
| Ranthambore | Rajasthan | 1973 | One of the original 9 reserves |
| Sundarbans | West Bengal | 1973 | Mangrove tigers |
| Bandipur | Karnataka | 1973 | Part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve |
| Sariska | Rajasthan | 1978 | Tigers reintroduced after local extinction |
| Pench | Madhya Pradesh / Maharashtra | 1992 | Inspired Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book |
Biosphere Reserves
India has 18 biosphere reserves, of which 13 are recognised under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme (as of 2025, following the inclusion of Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve, Himachal Pradesh).
| Biosphere Reserve | State | Year | UNESCO (MAB) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nilgiri | Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka | 1986 | Yes (2000) |
| Nanda Devi | Uttarakhand | 1988 | Yes (2004) |
| Sundarbans | West Bengal | 1989 | Yes (2001) |
| Gulf of Mannar | Tamil Nadu | 1989 | Yes (2001) |
| Nokrek | Meghalaya | 1988 | Yes (2009) |
| Pachmarhi | Madhya Pradesh | 1999 | Yes (2009) |
| Simlipal | Odisha | 1994 | Yes (2009) |
| Great Rann of Kutch | Gujarat | 2008 | Yes (2008) |
| Achanakmar-Amarkantak | Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh | 2005 | Yes (2012) |
| Agasthyamalai | Kerala, Tamil Nadu | 2001 | Yes (2016) |
| Khangchendzonga | Sikkim | 2000 | Yes (2018) |
| Panna | Madhya Pradesh | 2011 | Yes (2020) |
| Cold Desert | Himachal Pradesh | 2009 | Yes (2025) |
| Manas | Assam | 1989 | No |
| Dibru-Saikhowa | Assam | 1997 | No |
| Dihang-Dibang | Arunachal Pradesh | 1998 | No |
| Seshachalam Hills | Andhra Pradesh | 2010 | No |
| Kachchh | Gujarat | 2008 | No |
Ramsar Sites (Wetlands of International Importance)
India became a signatory to the Ramsar Convention in 1982. As of early 2026, India has 98 Ramsar Sites, making it the country with the third-highest number of Ramsar sites globally (after the United Kingdom and Mexico).
| Parameter | Details |
|---|---|
| Convention Signed | Ramsar, Iran (1971) |
| India Joined | 1982 |
| First Indian Ramsar Sites | Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan) -- designated 1981 |
| Total Ramsar Sites (2026) | 98 |
| State with Most Sites | Tamil Nadu (20) |
| Largest Ramsar Site in India | Sundarbans Wetland, West Bengal |
Key Ramsar Sites
| Site | State | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Chilika Lake | Odisha | Largest brackish-water lagoon in Asia |
| Keoladeo Ghana | Rajasthan | UNESCO World Heritage Site; migratory bird haven |
| Wular Lake | Jammu & Kashmir | Largest freshwater lake in India |
| Loktak Lake | Manipur | Floating phumdis; Keibul Lamjao National Park |
| Sambhar Lake | Rajasthan | Largest inland salt lake in India |
| Vembanad-Kol | Kerala | Longest lake in India |
Environmental Legislation in India
| Legislation | Year | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| Wildlife (Protection) Act | 1972 (amended 2022) | Prohibits hunting of wild animals; establishes National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves; 4 Schedules (reduced from 6 by 2022 amendment); implements CITES; establishes NTCA and Wildlife Crime Control Bureau |
| Forest Conservation Act | 1980 (amended 2023) | Restricts de-reservation of forests; requires Central Government approval for diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes; renamed Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023 |
| Environment (Protection) Act | 1986 | Umbrella legislation enacted after Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984); empowers Central Government to set standards, regulate industrial locations, and manage hazardous substances; penalties: up to 5 years imprisonment and/or Rs 1 lakh fine |
| Biological Diversity Act | 2002 (amended 2023) | Implements CBD obligations; establishes three-tier structure: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA, est. 2003), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs), and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs); regulates access to biological resources and benefit-sharing |
Schedules Under Wildlife (Protection) Act (Post-2022 Amendment)
| Schedule | Protection Level |
|---|---|
| Schedule I | Highest protection (Tiger, Rhinoceros, Elephant, Lion-tailed Macaque) |
| Schedule II | High protection (lesser degree than Schedule I) |
| Schedule III | Protected species (e.g., Barking Deer, Hyena) |
| Schedule IV | Protected plants |
International Conventions
| Convention | Year Adopted | India Joined | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ramsar Convention (Wetlands) | 1971 | 1982 | Conservation and wise use of wetlands; Montreux Record for degraded sites |
| CITES (Trade in Endangered Species) | 1973 | 1976 | Regulates international trade in wildlife through 3 Appendices; legally binding |
| CMS / Bonn Convention (Migratory Species) | 1979 | 1983 | Conservation of terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species; India hosted COP-13 in Gandhinagar (2020) |
| CBD (Biological Diversity) | 1992 | 1994 | Three objectives: conservation, sustainable use, benefit-sharing; Cartagena Protocol (biosafety); Nagoya Protocol (access and benefit-sharing); Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022) |
| UNFCCC | 1992 | 1993 | Framework for climate action; led to Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement |
| World Heritage Convention | 1972 | 1977 | Protection of cultural and natural heritage sites |
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), 2022
Adopted at CBD COP-15, this landmark framework sets 4 goals and 23 targets for 2030, including the "30x30" target -- protecting 30% of the world's land and ocean areas by 2030.
Important for UPSC
Prelims Focus
- Total number of biodiversity hotspots globally (36) and in India (4)
- IUCN categories and status of key Indian species
- Number of National Parks (~106), Wildlife Sanctuaries (~560+), Tiger Reserves (58), Biosphere Reserves (18, of which 13 UNESCO-recognised), Ramsar Sites (98)
- Schedules of Wildlife (Protection) Act -- 4 schedules post-2022 amendment
- Year of key legislation: WPA 1972, FCA 1980, EPA 1986, BDA 2002
- CITES Appendices (I, II, III) vs WPA Schedules
- First national park (Jim Corbett, 1936), first tiger reserve (Corbett, 1973)
- India CMS COP-13 host (Gandhinagar, 2020)
Mains Dimensions
- GS3 (Environment): Conservation vs development debate; effectiveness of Protected Area network; man-animal conflict; role of local communities in conservation
- GS2 (Governance): Three-tier structure of Biological Diversity Act; role of NTCA; implementation challenges of environmental legislation; judicial activism through NGT
- GS1 (Geography): Spatial distribution of biodiversity hotspots; Western Ghats UNESCO status; impact of climate change on Himalayan biodiversity
- Essay: "Development at the cost of environment is no development at all"
Interview Angles
- Why is India mega-diverse despite its relatively small land area?
- Is the Protected Area model sufficient, or do we need landscape-level conservation?
- How can tribals be made partners in conservation rather than victims of displacement?
- Balancing economic aspirations with ecological sustainability in hotspot regions.
Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims
Q1. (2019): Consider the following statements:
- Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.
- The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.
- The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (c) (Prelims 2019, GS Paper I)
Q2. (2018): Consider the following statements:
- The__(CITES) is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this Convention does not take the place of national laws.
- IUCN is an organ of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (a) (CITES is legally binding but does not replace national laws; IUCN is not a UN organ โ it is an independent international organisation) (Prelims 2018, GS Paper I)
Q3. (2020): Which of the following Protected Areas are located in the Cauvery basin?
- Nagarhole National Park
- Papikonda National Park
- Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
- Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: (c) (Papikonda is in the Godavari basin, not Cauvery) (Prelims 2020, GS Paper I)
Q4. (2017): Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under "Critical Tiger Habitat"? (a) Corbett (b) Ranthambore (c) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (d) Sundarbans Answer: (c) (Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam has the largest Critical Tiger Habitat area) (Prelims 2020, GS Paper I)
Mains
Q5. (2018): How does the Biodiversity Act, 2002 seek to ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources? Discuss the role of the National Biodiversity Authority in this regard. (GS Paper III, 250 words)
Q6. (2021): Discuss the role of Wetlands in the ecosystem, their threats and strategies for conservation. (GS Paper III, 250 words)
Current Affairs Connect
| Resource | Link |
|---|---|
| Ujiyari -- Environment News | Ujiyari -- Environment News |
| Ujiyari -- Editorials | Ujiyari -- Editorials |
| Ujiyari -- Daily Updates | Ujiyari -- Daily Updates |
Sources: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (moef.gov.in); National Tiger Conservation Authority (ntca.gov.in); Wildlife Institute of India (wii.gov.in); Central Pollution Control Board (cpcb.nic.in); India Code (indiacode.nic.in); IUCN Red List (iucnredlist.org); UNESCO MAB Programme; Ramsar Convention Secretariat; Press Information Bureau (pib.gov.in); Conservation International.