BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Monsoon mechanics (ENSO, El Niño, La Niña), vegetation types, and wildlife conservation dominate Prelims. Project Tiger census data (2022), Project Elephant, national symbols (animal, bird, tree, flower), and critically endangered species are perennial Prelims topics. Mains asks about conservation challenges, climate-monsoon nexus, and biodiversity policy.
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
Table 1: India's Natural Vegetation Types
| Vegetation Type | Rainfall | Key States | Key Species | Key National Parks |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tropical Wet Evergreen (Rainforest) | >200 cm | Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (W Ghats); Andaman & Nicobar; NE India | Teak (in semi-evergreen), Rosewood, Ebony, Bamboo | Silent Valley (Kerala); Namdapha (Arunachal) |
| Tropical Moist Deciduous (Monsoon) | 100–200 cm | MP, Maharashtra, Odisha, Jharkhand, UP, West Bengal | Teak, Sal, Bamboo, Sandalwood, Mahua | Kanha (MP); Sundarban (WB); Similipal (Odisha) |
| Tropical Dry Deciduous | 70–100 cm | UP, Rajasthan, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh | Teak, Sal (in patches), Dry Sal, Flame of the Forest | Panna (MP); Ranthambore (Rajasthan) |
| Tropical Thorn/Scrub | <50 cm | Rajasthan, Gujarat, south Peninsular India | Acacia, Cactus, Euphoria, Khejri (State tree of Rajasthan) | Desert NP (Jaisalmer); Blackbuck NP (Gujarat) |
| Montane / Himalayan | Varies with altitude | J&K, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal | Oak, Rhododendron, Pine, Deodar, Silver Fir, Birch | Hemis (J&K, largest NP in India); Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand, UNESCO WHS) |
| Mangroves | Tidal/coastal | West Bengal (Sundarbans), Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra | Sundari, Rhizophora, Avicennia, Heritiera | Sundarbans NP (UNESCO WHS, Tiger Reserve) |
| Alpine/Tundra | High altitude | Ladakh, high Himalayas | Cushion plants, lichens, mosses; Bugyals (alpine meadows at lower altitude) | Hemis (highest altitude NP); Kibber (HP) |
Table 2: India's National Symbols Related to Wildlife and Nature
| Symbol | Name | Scientific Name | Status / Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| National Animal | Bengal Tiger | Panthera tigris tigris | Endangered (IUCN); 3,682 tigers (2022 census); 58 Tiger Reserves |
| National Bird | Indian Peacock | Pavo cristatus | Least Concern (IUCN); Schedule I WPA; National Bird since 1963 |
| National Aquatic Animal | Gangetic Dolphin | Platanista gangetica | Endangered (IUCN); national aquatic animal since 2009; freshwater dolphin; echolocation (blind) |
| National Tree | Banyan | Ficus benghalensis | National tree since 1950; symbol of immortality; Pillayarpatti Banyan tree is India's largest |
| National Flower | Lotus | Nelumbo nucifera | Sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism; grows in muddy water (symbol of purity) |
| National Fruit | Mango | Mangifera indica | "King of Fruits"; cultivated in India for 5,000+ years; 1,000+ varieties |
| National River | Ganga | — | Declared National River 2008; source = Gangotri Glacier; length = 2,525 km |
| National Heritage Animal | Elephant | Elephas maximus | Declared 2010; 22,446 elephants (SAIEE 2025, DNA-based; WII); 30 Elephant Reserves |
Table 3: India's Key Conservation Projects and Data
| Project | Launched | Key Data (Latest) | Nodal Ministry | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Project Tiger | 1973 | 3,682 tigers (2022 census, highest ever); 58 Tiger Reserves (as of March 2025); ~5% of India's geographic area | MoEFCC | India has ~75% of world's wild tigers |
| Project Elephant | 1992 | 22,446 elephants (SAIEE 2025, DNA-based; WII); 30 Elephant Reserves | MoEFCC | Gajah portal for elephant monitoring; Elephant corridors under pressure |
| Project Snow Leopard | 2009 | ~718 snow leopards (first census, 2023) | MoEFCC | Found in J&K, Ladakh, HP, UK, Sikkim, Arunachal; "Ghost of the Mountains" |
| Crocodile Conservation | 1975 | All 3 species recovering: Mugger (Vulnerable), Saltwater Croc (Least Concern), Gharial (Critically Endangered) | MoEFCC | Gharial: only in Chambal, Girwa, Mahanadi; ~900 individuals |
| Sea Turtle Conservation | 1975 | Olive Ridley mass nesting (Gahirmatha, Odisha = world's largest; ~600,000 turtles in 2020) | MoEFCC | Operation Olivia (coast guard protects nesting beaches) |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
India's Remarkable Climate Diversity
India's climate diversity: India experiences nearly every climate type found on Earth except permanent polar ice:
- Tropical hot and wet: Andaman & Nicobar, Western Ghats, Northeast India
- Tropical monsoon: Most of peninsular India
- Semi-arid / Arid: Rajasthan (Thar Desert) — one of the world's most densely populated deserts (~80 persons/km²)
- Humid subtropical: Indo-Gangetic plains
- Mountain/Alpine: Himalayas (all altitude zones from subtropical foothills to alpine tundra)
- Cold desert: Ladakh — high-altitude cold desert (Trans-Himalayan region); very low precipitation (<100 mm/year), extreme temperatures (−40°C in winter)
This diversity in 3.28 million km² makes India a megadiverse country with exceptional biological richness.
The Indian Monsoon — Mechanism and Pattern
Southwest Monsoon (June–September) — India's lifeline:
The Southwest Monsoon delivers approximately 75% of India's annual rainfall and is the foundation of India's agriculture (despite expanding irrigation, over 50% of net sown area is still rain-fed).
Mechanism (simplified): During summer, the Indian subcontinent heats up more than the surrounding Indian Ocean → low pressure forms over northwest India/Pakistan → moist oceanic air rushes in from the Indian Ocean → moisture-laden winds rise over land (especially over mountains) → condensation → heavy rainfall.
Two branches:
- Bay of Bengal branch: Strikes the Arakan coast of Myanmar → Northeast India (heaviest rainfall — Meghalaya, Assam) → bends westward along Gangetic plains
- Arabian Sea branch: Strikes the Western Ghats (windward/western side gets very heavy rain; leeward/eastern side = rain shadow — Karnataka's Deccan plateau is much drier) → some moisture reaches Gujarat and Rajasthan
Onset: IMD (India Meteorological Department, founded 1875) officially declares the onset of SW Monsoon when certain conditions are met at Kerala — historically around June 1 (±7 days). IMD headquarters: New Delhi (main); Pune (IITM) for monsoon research.
Monsoon trough: The axis of low pressure that extends from Rajasthan to Bay of Bengal; the real-time position of the trough determines where rain falls; "break monsoon" periods occur when the trough shifts to the Himalayas (causing flooding in foothills and drought in plains).
Northeast Monsoon (October–December): After the SW Monsoon withdraws (beginning from northwest India in September, reaching Kerala by November-December), the upper atmosphere reversal brings winds from northeast. These winds pick up moisture over the Bay of Bengal and deliver rain to Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, coastal Andhra Pradesh, and Rayalaseema. This is why Tamil Nadu receives rain in winter while most of India is dry — and why Tamil Nadu's agricultural season (Kharif = July-August, Rabi = December-January) is shifted relative to rest of India.
ENSO and India's Monsoon — El Niño and La Niña
UPSC GS3 — Climate Science, Monsoon Variability:
ENSO = El Niño Southern Oscillation: A natural climate pattern involving periodic warming (El Niño) and cooling (La Niña) of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. This affects global weather patterns.
El Niño and Indian Monsoon:
- During El Niño, the Pacific Ocean warms → changes in atmospheric circulation → the Walker Circulation weakens → Indian Ocean moisture supply to the monsoon is disrupted
- Result: Below-normal Indian Monsoon (drought risk); major droughts of 1987, 2002, 2009, 2014-15 were El Niño years
- 2023 El Niño: IMD predicted below-normal monsoon for 2023 (which was confirmed — SW monsoon 2023 was 94% of Long Period Average, classified as "normal" but with significant spatial variation and a delayed withdrawal)
La Niña and Indian Monsoon:
- Pacific Ocean cools → strengthens Walker Circulation → Indian Ocean moisture supply enhanced
- Result: Above-normal Indian Monsoon (flood risk in some areas); 2020 and 2022 were La Niña years with above-normal monsoons
IOD (Indian Ocean Dipole): Also called the "Indian Niño"; temperature difference between western and eastern Indian Ocean. Positive IOD (western Indian Ocean warmer) = good monsoon for India. 2019 had a record positive IOD which partially offset the El Niño effect and gave India near-normal monsoon.
IITM Pune (Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology) is India's premier research institution for monsoon science; operates climate models (IITM-ESM) and contributes to IPCC assessments.
Rainfall Extremes in India
Wettest place: Mawsynram, Meghalaya (East Khasi Hills) — average annual rainfall ~11,871 mm/year. Nearby Cherrapunji (Sohra) — ~11,430 mm/year — is more famous due to historical records. Both receive most rain June-September from the Bay of Bengal branch of the SW Monsoon, funnelled by the Khasi Hills geography.
Driest inhabited area: Jaisalmer, Rajasthan — ~100 mm/year. The Thar Desert (also called Great Indian Desert) lies in the rain shadow of the Aravalli Range (which run parallel to the monsoon winds, offering little orographic lift) and is located in the subtropical high-pressure belt.
Paradox: Cherrapunji is one of the wettest places on Earth yet faces water scarcity in the dry season — rain falls in a short period, runs off steep slopes, and there is little groundwater retention. This illustrates that rainfall quantity ≠ water security.
India's Forest Cover and Vegetation
UPSC GS3 — Forests, Biodiversity, India's Targets:
India's forest cover (ISFR 2023): 21.76% of geographic area is forest cover (Total Forest Cover ~7,15,343 km²); Total Forest + Tree Cover = 25.17% (forest 21.76% + tree cover 3.41%). This is still well below India's National Forest Policy 1988 target of 33% of geographic area.
Types within forest cover:
- Very Dense Forest (VDF, canopy >70%): 3.07% (99,542 km²)
- Moderately Dense Forest (MDF, canopy 40-70%): 9.73% (3,14,726 km²)
- Open Forest (canopy 10-40%): 12.04% (3,89,938 km²)
- Scrub (canopy <10%): 1.63% (52,848 km²)
Forest Survey of India (FSI) publishes the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) every 2 years. The assessment uses satellite data (IRS/LISS-III) interpreted at 1:50,000 scale; the unit of measurement is 1 hectare minimum.
National target: India's NDC under Paris Agreement commits to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through forest and tree cover by 2030. This requires afforestation/reforestation on a massive scale — the CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) fund, established under CAMPA Act 2016, has ~₹54,000 crore to fund compensatory afforestation.
Mangroves: India's mangrove cover = 4,992 km² (ISFR 2023, slight increase from 4,975 km² in 2021). Sundarbans (India + Bangladesh) = world's largest mangrove forest (~10,000 km² total; India's portion ~4,270 km²). Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987); Biosphere Reserve; Tiger Reserve. Other significant mangrove areas: Bhitarkanika (Odisha, 2nd largest in India), Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu), Godavari-Krishna delta (Andhra Pradesh).
Wildlife Conservation in India
India's Biodiversity Profile:
India's biodiversity statistics:
- ~2.4% of world's land area but home to 7-8% of all recorded species on Earth
- 4 of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots — Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland (the last includes Andaman & Nicobar)
- 107 National Parks (MoEFCC, April 2025) + 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries + 18 Biosphere Reserves (of which 13 are in UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves; Cold Desert added September 2025)
- India is ranked 8th in the list of world's megadiverse countries
Project Tiger:
UPSC GS3 — Project Tiger: India's Flagship Conservation Programme:
Launched in 1973 under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 framework; initially 9 tiger reserves; now 58 Tiger Reserves (as of March 2025) covering approximately 84,500 km² (~5% of India's geographic area).
Tiger population data:
- 2022 census (All India Tiger Estimation 2022): 3,682 tigers — the highest ever recorded in India; released on International Tiger Day (July 29, 2023) by PM Modi
- Previous census: 2,967 tigers (2018); 2,226 tigers (2014); 1,706 tigers (2010)
- India holds approximately 75% of the world's wild tiger population
- Global wild tiger population: ~4,500-5,000 (WWF estimate, 2023)
NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority): Statutory body established under Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (amendment 2006); oversees Project Tiger; evaluates tiger reserves; can impose restrictions in "core/critical tiger habitat" areas.
Best performing tiger reserves (2022 census): Corbett (Uttarakhand) — ~260 tigers (highest individual reserve count); Bandipur (Karnataka); Nagarhole (Karnataka); Bandhavgarh (MP); Kanha (MP); Sundarbans (WB — very difficult to count).
Source-sink dynamics: Large tiger reserves (Corbett, Bandipur) act as "source populations" from which tigers disperse to smaller reserves ("sinks") through wildlife corridors. Protecting these corridors is critical — a major challenge as they pass through human-dominated landscapes.
Critically Endangered Species in India:
India's most endangered wildlife:
Great Indian Bustard (GIB): ~150 wild individuals (2024 estimates; ~34 additional in captive breeding centres in Rajasthan); Rajasthan (Desert NP, Jaisalmer), Gujarat; IUCN Critically Endangered; Schedule I WPA; threatened by power line collision, solar farms, habitat loss; State Bird of Rajasthan; National Action Plan for GIB under implementation; captive breeding at Sam and Ramdevra centres, Rajasthan.
Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis): Critically Endangered grassland bird; found in Terai grasslands (Dudhwa, Orang NP); total population ~500 worldwide; threatened by grassland conversion to agriculture.
Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania): Critically Endangered; world's smallest wild pig; found only in Manas NP, Assam (~200 individuals in wild); captive breeding and reintroduction programme by Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP); IUCN listed.
Andaman Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis): Critically Endangered; endemic to Andaman Islands; IUCN listed; one of the world's rarest shrews.
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus): Critically Endangered; freshwater crocodilian with long thin snout for catching fish; found only in Chambal, Girwa, Mahanadi rivers; ~900 individuals; severely threatened by fishing nets (drowning), sand mining, dam construction; National Chambal Sanctuary is its primary refuge.
Indian Vultures: Multiple species Critically Endangered (White-rumped, Long-billed, Slender-billed, Red-headed vultures); population crashed 97-99% in 1990s-2000s due to diclofenac (veterinary anti-inflammatory drug in cattle carcasses — fatally toxic to vultures → kidney failure); diclofenac banned for veterinary use in India 2006; meloxicam approved as safe alternative; populations slowly recovering with Vulture Safe Zones and captive breeding.
One-Horned Rhinoceros — A Conservation Success
UPSC GS3 — Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros Conservation:
The Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List — an improvement from Endangered due to conservation success.
Population: ~4,014 rhinos (2022 census, WWF India); approximately 2,600+ in Kaziranga National Park, Assam — home to ~90% of the world's one-horned rhino population. Kaziranga is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985), Biosphere Reserve, and Tiger Reserve.
Other populations: Pobitora WS (Assam; highest rhino density in the world); Manas NP (Assam; reintroduced after near-extinction during Bodo insurgency); Orang NP (Assam); Dudhwa NP (UP; small reintroduced population); Jaldapara NP (West Bengal); Gorumara NP (West Bengal).
Threats: Poaching for horn (used in traditional Chinese medicine; prices on black market > gold by weight); flooding (Kaziranga is prone to Brahmaputra floods, which displace rhinos onto NH-37 where they are killed by vehicles; Supreme Court has ordered seasonal speed limits on the highway); habitat encroachment.
India-Nepal rhino cooperation: Both countries cooperate under the "Asian Rhino Range States" framework to combat poaching and share best practices.
[Additional] 6a. Project Lion and Asiatic Lion — 891 Lions in 2025, India's Second Big Cat Success
The chapter covers Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and Project Snow Leopard but completely omits Project Lion and the Asiatic Lion — India's second big-cat conservation success story. The 16th Asiatic Lion Census (May 2025) recorded 891 lions, a 32.2% increase from 674 in 2020 — demonstrating that single-species conservation can produce dramatic recovery when political will exists.
Asiatic Lion — Quick Facts:
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Scientific name | Panthera leo persica |
| IUCN status | Endangered (Asiatic subpopulation, 2024) — distinct from African lion (Vulnerable) |
| Population (May 2025) | 891 lions across 11 districts of Gujarat |
| Location | Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, Saurashtra, Gujarat (the only wild Asiatic lion population in the world) |
| Gir area | 1,410.30 sq km total — 258.71 sq km National Park + 1,151.59 sq km Wildlife Sanctuary |
| Distinction from African lion | Smaller mane; prominent belly fold; divided lower incisors; fold of skin along abdomen |
| Historical range | Once found from Greece and West Asia through Iran to India; now restricted to a single population in Saurashtra |
Why "Endangered" despite growth? Although the population has grown impressively, the Asiatic lion is still classified as Endangered because:
- It is a single-population species — one disease outbreak, drought, or wildfire could eliminate the entire population (no second wild population as backup)
- All 891 lions share a relatively small geographic range — genetic diversity is limited
- The IUCN criterion used: any species with <2,500 mature individuals + restricted range qualifies as Vulnerable; single-population risk elevates it to Endangered
[Additional] Project Lion and Asiatic Lion Census 2025 (GS3 — Conservation / GS2 — Government Policy):
16th Asiatic Lion Census (May 10–13, 2025):
- 891 lions recorded — the highest ever count
- Distribution: 394 within Gir protected areas; 507 outside protected areas — lions have expanded their range into 11 districts, 58 talukas of Saurashtra
- Previous census (2020): 674 lions; increase = 32.2% in 5 years
- Census method: Direct count by 2,000+ personnel (forest staff, wildlife trackers) simultaneously across the range over 3 nights
Project Lion:
- Announced: August 15, 2020 (PM Modi, 74th Independence Day)
- Cabinet budget approved: March 2025
- Budget: ₹2,927.71 crore over 10 years (2025-2035)
- Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
- Objectives:
- Secure and expand Gir's lion population and habitat
- Develop a second wild population outside Gir — initially proposed at Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary (MP), then at Barda Wildlife Sanctuary (Gujarat)
- Upgrade wildlife health management and genetic monitoring
- Community benefit sharing with Maldharis (pastoral community traditionally inside Gir)
Barda Wildlife Sanctuary — emerging second home:
- Located in Porbandar district, Gujarat (~120 km from Gir)
- In 2023, one male lion migrated naturally from Gir to Barda → bred → by 2025 census, 17 lions (6 adults + 11 cubs) recorded at Barda
- Natural colonisation by a single migrant lion shows the potential for range expansion
- Gujarat government is developing Barda as the "second home" for lions within Gujarat
Kuno-Palpur dispute:
- In 2013, the Supreme Court ordered translocation of some Gir lions to Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh) to establish a second population as an insurance against disease/disaster
- Gujarat opposed the order — arguing Kuno was not ready and that sharing lions with another state was unnecessary
- The translocation has still NOT happened despite the SC order — one of India's longest-running conservation disputes
- In 2022-23, Kuno was instead used for Project Cheetah (reintroduction of cheetahs from Namibia and South Africa)
Maldharis — traditional lion communities:
- Maldharis (literally "livestock keepers") are the pastoralist communities who have lived inside Gir for generations; they coexist with lions but their cattle are a food source for lions
- About 2,000+ Maldharis still live inside the Gir sanctuary in nesses (traditional settlements)
- Project Lion includes community engagement to reduce conflict and share conservation benefits
UPSC synthesis: Project Lion + Asiatic Lion census is a GS3 biodiversity + GS2 governance topic. Key exam facts: 891 lions (May 10-13 2025, 16th census); 32.2% increase from 674 (2020); Gir NP = 1,410.30 sq km total, Saurashtra Gujarat; IUCN = Endangered; Project Lion = August 15 2020 announcement; Rs. 2,927.71 crore for 10 years (Cabinet March 2025); Barda WLS Porbandar = natural second colony (17 lions 2025); Kuno-Palpur SC 2013 order for translocation = still unimplemented; Kuno used for Project Cheetah instead. Maldharis = traditional community inside Gir. India's lion ≠ African lion (smaller mane, abdominal fold, Endangered vs Vulnerable).
[Additional] 6b. India in Global Forest Rankings — FAO GFRA 2025
The chapter covers India's domestic forest data (ISFR 2023: 21.76% forest cover, 25.17% forest + tree cover) but misses India's global position. The FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025 (GFRA 2025), released October 22, 2025, provides the most authoritative global comparison: India ranks 9th globally in total forest area, 3rd in net annual forest gain, and 5th in carbon sinks — remarkable performance given India's population density and agricultural pressure.
Key Forest Measurement Terms:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Forest cover | Land with tree canopy density above a minimum threshold (India: 10%; varies by country); includes all forest types |
| Net forest gain | Difference between new forest created (afforestation + natural regeneration) and forest lost (deforestation) — a country can have net gain despite some deforestation if creation > loss |
| Carbon sink | A forest that absorbs more CO₂ from the atmosphere than it releases — forests that are growing sequester more carbon; old or degraded forests may be carbon neutral or even sources |
| Carbon stock | Total carbon stored in a forest (biomass above ground + below ground + deadwood + litter + soil organic carbon) |
| Deforestation rate | Annual rate of conversion of forest land to non-forest use |
| ISFR | India State of Forest Report — India's biennial forest assessment by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), Dehradun; uses satellite data |
| GFRA | Global Forest Resources Assessment — FAO's quinquennial (every 5 years) global forest survey; compares countries on standardised definitions |
[Additional] India's Global Forest Position — FAO GFRA 2025 (GS3 — Environment / Biodiversity / Climate):
FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025 — India's rankings:
| Metric | India's rank | India's figure |
|---|---|---|
| Total forest area | 9th globally | ~7,15,000 km² (ISFR 2023 baseline; GFRA uses Indian national data) |
| Net annual forest gain | 3rd globally | Net positive — gaining forest area year-on-year |
| Carbon sinks | 5th globally | 150 million tonnes CO₂/year removed from atmosphere (2021-2025 average) — forests absorbing more carbon than they emit |
| Mangrove area | Among top 5 globally | 4,992 km² (ISFR 2023); growing due to coastal restoration |
India's domestic forest data — ISFR 2023 (reference):
- Total forest cover: 7,15,343 km² = 21.76% of geographic area (forest cover only)
- Forest + tree cover: 8,27,357 km² = 25.17% of geographic area
- Carbon stock in forests: 7,285.5 million tonnes (total)
- Mangroves: 4,991.68 km² (slight increase from 4,975 km² in ISFR 2021)
- Target gap: India's National Forest Policy 1988 target = 33% geographic area under forest and tree cover; current = 25.17% → gap of ~7.83% (needs ~2.6 million km² more tree cover)
Why India gained forests while many countries lost:
- CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority): Rs. 54,000+ crore fund (collected as compensatory afforestation fees from projects that divert forest land for industry/infrastructure); deployed for afforestation, forest management, wildlife protection
- PM-JANMAN's afforestation component and agroforestry programmes (trees on agricultural land count toward "tree cover" even if not "forest cover")
- Green India Mission: Under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC); target = 10 million hectares for greening by 2020 (ongoing)
- Tree outside forests (TOF): Trees on farms, roadsides, and non-forest land — India has been expanding these significantly; counted in "tree cover" but not "forest cover"
Forest carbon accounting distinction (UPSC):
- India's NDC (2022) commits to creating 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂-equivalent additional carbon sink through forest and tree cover by 2030
- GFRA 2025 confirms India is on track — 150 Mt CO₂/year sink rate × 20 years = 3 billion tonnes
- Grassland carbon is NOT counted in India's carbon accounting under NDC — only forest carbon (a policy gap noted by ecologists)
India's forest loss areas — where deforestation occurs: Despite net gain nationally, certain regions face deforestation:
- Northeast India: States like Manipur, Mizoram show forest loss due to jhum cultivation and road expansion
- Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Development pressures, tribal exclusion zones being opened
- Maharashtra, Telangana: Mining and infrastructure projects divert forest land (compensated under CAMPA)
UPSC synthesis: GFRA 2025 is GS3 environment current affairs. Key exam facts: FAO GFRA 2025 released October 22 2025; India = 9th globally total forest area; 3rd in net annual forest gain; 5th in carbon sinks (150 Mt CO₂/year); ISFR 2023 = 21.76% forest cover / 25.17% forest+tree cover / 7,285.5 Mt carbon stock / 4,992 km² mangroves; NF Policy 1988 target = 33%; CAMPA = Rs.54,000+ crore compensatory afforestation fund; NDC = 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂-eq additional sink by 2030. Common Prelims trap: "24.84%" was used in the ISFR 2023 executive summary as total forest cover on rounded figures — the detailed report gives 21.76% as forest cover (without tree cover) and 25.17% including tree cover outside forests.
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- India's forest cover (ISFR 2023) = 21.76%; total forest + tree cover = 25.17% (forest + 3.41% tree cover outside forests) — know both figures
- India's tiger population (2022 census) = 3,682 (released July 29, 2023); India has ~75% of world's wild tigers
- Project Tiger launched = 1973 (NOT 1971 or 1975); currently 58 Tiger Reserves (as of March 2025)
- Project Elephant = 1992 (NOT 1973); 30 Elephant Reserves; 22,446 elephants (SAIEE 2025, DNA-based; WII — new scientific baseline, not comparable to 2017 headcount)
- National Aquatic Animal = Gangetic Dolphin (NOT Irrawaddy Dolphin, NOT River Otter); declared 2009
- National Heritage Animal = Elephant (declared 2010, NOT 2009 or 2011)
- Mawsynram = wettest place (NOT Cherrapunji — Cherrapunji used to hold the record but Mawsynram has higher average)
- El Niño = weak/below-normal Indian monsoon; La Niña = good/above-normal Indian monsoon
- Sundarbans UNESCO WHS inscribed 1987 (NOT 2012); Western Ghats = 2012
- Kaziranga = ~90% of world's one-horned rhinos; UNESCO WHS 1985; Vulnerable (not Endangered) IUCN status
- Gharial is Critically Endangered (NOT Vulnerable); found only in Chambal, Girwa, Mahanadi rivers
- Vultures declined due to diclofenac (veterinary drug); banned in India 2006
- India has 4 biodiversity hotspots (Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland)
- India has 18 Biosphere Reserves (of which 13 in UNESCO World Network — Cold Desert added Sep 2025); 107 National Parks (MoEFCC, April 2025); 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries
Mains angles:
- Monsoon and India's food security: Why below-normal monsoon → inflation, distress, rural crisis
- Project Tiger as a conservation model: What worked (strict core zone protection, NTCA oversight) and remaining challenges (corridors, human-wildlife conflict)
- India's NDC forest targets: Challenges and strategies (CAMPA, agroforestry, urban trees)
Practice Questions
Prelims:
Consider the following statements about India's tiger population:
- India holds approximately 75% of the world's wild tiger population.
- The 2022 All India Tiger Estimation recorded 3,682 tigers.
- Project Tiger was launched in 1975.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (Project Tiger was launched in 1973, not 1975)
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
- India holds approximately 75% of the world's wild tiger population.
Which of the following correctly pairs a grassland/ecosystem in India with its state?
(a) Banni grasslands — Rajasthan
(b) Bugyals — Uttarakhand
(c) Myristica swamps — Maharashtra
(d) Shola grasslands — Andhra PradeshThe decline of vulture populations in India in the 1990s and 2000s was primarily caused by:
(a) Avian influenza (bird flu)
(b) Diclofenac residues in cattle carcasses
(c) Habitat loss due to deforestation
(d) Lead poisoning from hunting
Mains:
"The success of Project Tiger in India offers lessons for global wildlife conservation." Critically examine the factors behind India's tiger conservation success and the challenges that remain. (CSE Mains 2023, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)
How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affect the Indian Summer Monsoon? Discuss the implications of monsoon variability for India's food security and rural economy. (CSE Mains 2020, GS Paper 1, 15 marks)
