BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: This chapter covers two of the most tested areas in GS1 Ancient History — the Harappan/Indus Valley Civilisation and the Vedic Age. Prelims questions on IVC features (Great Bath, script, seals, sites) are perennial. Mains questions on IVC decline, Vedic social structure, and India's "unity in diversity" appear regularly. The Dholavira UNESCO inscription (2021) is fresh and frequently tested.
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
Table 1: Harappan Civilisation — Key Sites in India
| Site | State | Key Finds | Unique Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dholavira | Gujarat (Rann of Kutch, Kachchh district) | IVC inscription (largest single-line sign board); sophisticated water management (16 reservoirs); stadium | UNESCO WHS 2021; 5th largest IVC site; unique 3-part city plan |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana (Hisar district) | Largest IVC site overall (5 mounds); 2019 ancient DNA study | DNA study found no Central Asian steppe ancestry — significant for Aryan migration debate |
| Lothal | Gujarat (Ahmedabad district) | Dockyard (earliest in world); bead factory; double burial (man + woman) | Only site with a dockyard — evidence of maritime trade with Persian Gulf |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan (Hanumangarh district) | Pre-Harappan ploughed field (world's oldest ploughed field evidence); fire altars | Evidence of both pre-Harappan and mature Harappan phases |
| Banawali | Haryana (Fatehabad district) | Good quality barley; evidence of plough | Fortified settlement; paved roads |
| Surkotada | Gujarat | Horse remains (disputed — bone fragment; critics say it's Equus hemionus/wild ass not horse) | Fortified settlement; cemetery |
| Ropar (Roopnagar) | Punjab (India) | First IVC site in Indian Punjab after partition | Dog buried with master — rare evidence |
Table 2: Major Features of Harappan Civilisation
| Feature | Details | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| City planning | Grid-pattern streets (north-south, east-west); citadel mound + lower town; standardised bricks (4:2:1 ratio) | World's first planned urban settlements |
| Drainage system | Covered brick-lined drains; connected to main sewer; inspection holes | World's first planned urban sanitation system |
| Great Bath | Mohenjo-daro; 12m×7m×2.4m deep; bitumen lining; changing rooms; priestly ritual bathing? | Evidence of ritual life; proto-religious architecture |
| Script | ~400 signs; boustrophedon (right to left, sometimes alternating); on seals, pottery, bronze | Undeciphered; largest obstacle to understanding IVC fully |
| Trade | Seals found in Mesopotamia (Ur, Nippur); lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; copper from Oman; carnelian beads exported | Long-distance trade network; IVC called "Dilmun" in Mesopotamian records? |
| Standardised weights | Cubical chert weights in fixed ratios (1:2:4:8:16:32:64); accurate to 0.1 gram | Advanced commercial standardisation |
| Art | Dancing Girl bronze (lost-wax casting; Mohenjo-daro); Pashupati Seal (proto-Shiva?); Mother Goddess terracotta figurines; painted pottery | Sophisticated artistic tradition |
| Agriculture | Wheat, barley, peas, sesame, cotton (world's earliest cotton cultivation); rice at Lothal and Rangpur | Cotton cultivation = "Sindon" in Greek (hence India) |
Table 3: Vedic Tradition — Key Texts and Concepts
| Text | Period (approx.) | Language | Key Content |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rig Veda | ~1500–1000 BCE (oral composition) | Vedic Sanskrit | 1,028 hymns to nature deities (Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma, Ushas); pastoral life; earliest known Indo-Aryan text |
| Sama Veda | ~1200–900 BCE | Vedic Sanskrit | Musical settings of Rig Vedic hymns for soma rituals; origin of Indian classical music |
| Yajur Veda | ~1200–900 BCE | Vedic Sanskrit | Prose and verse sacrificial formulas; ritual procedures |
| Atharva Veda | ~1200–900 BCE | Vedic Sanskrit | Spells, charms, healing; folk tradition incorporated; everyday life |
| Brahmanas | ~900–700 BCE | Sanskrit | Prose commentaries on Vedas explaining rituals; evidence of complex sacrificial system |
| Aranyakas | ~800–600 BCE | Sanskrit | "Forest texts" — transitional between ritual and philosophy |
| Upanishads | ~800–400 BCE | Sanskrit | Philosophical dialogues; Brahman-Atman identity; karma; samsara; moksha; foundation of Vedanta philosophy |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
Harappan Civilisation — Overview
Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation: Dates approximately 3300–1300 BCE (Early Harappan from 3300 BCE; Mature Harappan 2600–1900 BCE; Late Harappan/Decline 1900–1300 BCE). Geographic spread: ~1.5 million km² — the largest of the three ancient river-valley civilisations (larger than Mesopotamia and Egypt combined). Covered modern Pakistan, northwest India, parts of Afghanistan, and even a site at Shortughai (Afghanistan, near lapis lazuli mines).
Named "Harappan" after the first excavated site (Harappa, Punjab, Pakistan, 1921) and also called "Indus Valley Civilisation" (IVC) after the Indus river system. The Ghaggar-Hakra river (identified by some scholars with the Vedic Saraswati) had many IVC sites — making "Indus-Saraswati Civilisation" another contested name.
The Great Cities of the IVC
Mohenjo-daro ("Mound of the Dead" in Sindhi) is the most famous site, located in Sindh, Pakistan. Excavated by R.D. Banerji (1922) and subsequently by John Marshall, E.J.H. Mackay, and Ernest Mackay. Key finds:
- Great Bath: The most famous structure; a large watertight tank (likely used for ritual purification); surrounded by rooms (changing rooms? priest quarters?)
- Great Granary: Large building near the citadel, once interpreted as a granary but now debated (may have been a large meeting hall or administrative building)
- Dancing Girl: Bronze figurine ~10.5 cm tall; lost-wax (cire perdue) casting technique; depicts a young girl with bangles and a necklace; discovered in a house in lower Mohenjo-daro
- Pashupati Seal: Steatite seal showing a horned figure (possibly a deity) seated in yogic posture surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, deer); often interpreted as "Proto-Shiva" or Pashupati (Lord of Animals)
Dholavira (Gujarat) — India's Harappan Gem:
Dholavira is located on Khadir island in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021, making it India's 40th UNESCO WHS.
Unique features of Dholavira:
- Water management: Unlike other IVC sites, Dholavira is not on a perennial river; it developed an extraordinary system of 16 water reservoirs (some cut into rock), channels, and dams to harvest and store seasonal rainfall and flash floods from the surrounding hills — arguably the most sophisticated ancient water management system in the world proportional to city size
- Signboard inscription: A large (3-metre wide) inscription with 10 signs found near the north gate — the largest single IVC inscription ever found; possibly a public notice or gate inscription (still undeciphered)
- Three-part city plan: Most IVC cities have two parts (citadel + lower town); Dholavira has three — citadel, middle town, and lower town — suggesting a more complex social hierarchy
- Stadium: A large open arena-like structure; possibly used for public gatherings, games, or assemblies
Harappan Decline — Causes and Debates
UPSC GS1 — IVC Decline: Multi-Causal Explanation:
The Harappan Civilisation declined after ~1900 BCE. This was not an overnight collapse but a gradual process over 500+ years. Major theories:
Climate change / Monsoon weakening: Paleoclimatic evidence (stalagmite studies from Uttarakhand caves) suggests the Indian Summer Monsoon weakened significantly around 2000–1700 BCE → droughts → agricultural failure → city abandonment. This is currently the strongest evidence-based explanation.
Drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra river: Many major IVC sites (Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Banawali) are located on the Ghaggar-Hakra drainage. Tectonic shifts or river capture may have caused this river system to weaken or dry up, destroying the agricultural base.
Aryan migration / invasion (older theory): Mortimer Wheeler (1940s) proposed that "Aryan invaders" destroyed IVC. Now largely discredited — mass violence evidence is absent; the genetic and archaeological picture is far more complex. The 2019 Rakhigarhi DNA study found no Central Asian steppe ancestry in the IVC skeletons, though later admixture with steppe pastoralists clearly occurred in the post-IVC period.
Flooding and disease: Evidence of multiple floods at Mohenjo-daro; overcrowding may have led to epidemic disease in later phases.
Trade network collapse: The collapse of Mesopotamian cities (~2000 BCE) may have disrupted the IVC's long-distance trade, weakening urban economies.
The current consensus is that climate change (monsoon weakening + river drying) was the primary driver, with no evidence for violent conquest as the cause.
Vedic Tradition
The Vedas: The four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva) are the foundational texts of the Vedic tradition. They were composed in Vedic Sanskrit (an earlier form of Classical Sanskrit) and transmitted orally for approximately 3,000 years before being written down. This oral tradition was maintained with remarkable fidelity through pada-patha (word-by-word recitation), krama-patha (linked recitation), and other complex memorisation techniques involving rhythm, tone, and gesture.
The Rig Veda (~1,028 hymns, ~10,600 verses) is considered the world's oldest religious text that is still actively recited. UNESCO inscribed the Vedic chanting tradition on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.
Early Vedic Society (~1500–1000 BCE): The Rig Veda depicts a pastoral, semi-nomadic society that valued cattle (wealth measured in cattle), horses (for warfare and prestige), and fire (Agni — the sacred sacrificial fire mediating between humans and gods). The society was organised into jana (tribal units) led by rajanyas (warrior chiefs). Agriculture existed but was secondary to pastoralism.
Later Vedic Transition (~1000–600 BCE):
From Pastoral Tribe to Agricultural Kingdom: The Later Vedic period (Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas + Brahmanas + Upanishads) marks a fundamental transformation:
- Society settled into the Gangetic plains (iron tools enabled forest clearing → agriculture)
- Iron use (from ~1000 BCE, Hallur in Karnataka and Atranjikhera in UP among earliest sites) revolutionised agriculture and warfare
- Varna system became more rigid — originally functional differentiation (Brahmin = priest-teacher, Kshatriya = warrior-ruler, Vaishya = merchant-farmer, Shudra = service provider); increasingly hereditary by Later Vedic period
- Ashrama system codified life stages: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest dweller, retirement), Sannyasa (renunciation)
- Upanishadic philosophy (~800–400 BCE): Radical questioning of ritual; Brahman (universal consciousness/soul of universe), Atman (individual soul), their identity (Tat tvam asi — "Thou art That"); karma (actions determine rebirth); dharma (cosmic/moral order); moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth = samsara). These concepts became the philosophical foundation of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Dravidian Cultural Traditions
UPSC GS1 — South Indian Cultural Heritage:
Tamil Sangam literature (~300 BCE–300 CE): A remarkable body of poetry — approximately 2,381 poems by ~473 poets — composed in Old Tamil and preserved in anthologies like Purananuru, Akananuru, Natrinai, and the longer epics Silappatikaram and Manimekalai.
Tolkappiyam: The oldest surviving grammar of Tamil language (and among the world's oldest surviving grammatical texts), authored by Tolkappiyar; dated ~300 BCE–100 CE; covers phonology, morphology, and poetics. Demonstrates Tamil's antiquity as a literary language independent of Sanskrit.
Pre-Sanskrit South Indian deities: Archaeological and textual evidence suggests a distinct pre-Vedic South Indian religious tradition:
- Murugan (Skanda/Kartikeya in Sanskrit): Considered originally a Tamil deity absorbed into the Sanskrit pantheon; deeply revered in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
- Tirumal (Vishnu in Sanskrit): Pre-Vedic South Indian deity who was later syncretised with the Vedic Vishnu
- Kotravai (identified with Durga/Kali): War goddess of the ancient Tamils
Indus-Dravidian connection: Some linguists (notably Asko Parpola, a leading IVC script researcher) argue that the Harappan script encodes a proto-Dravidian language, and that the Dravidian language family spread from the Indus Valley region. This remains a scholarly hypothesis, not proven consensus, but has significant implications for understanding IVC culture.
India's Unity in Diversity — Cultural Threads
How diverse cultures became "India":
Sanskrit as a pan-India link language: Sanskrit served as the language of learning, religion, philosophy, and literature across India from ~500 BCE to ~1800 CE. Despite India's enormous linguistic diversity, scholars from Tamil Nadu, Bengal, Kashmir, and Gujarat all communicated through Sanskrit — like Latin in medieval Europe.
Epic traditions: The Ramayana and Mahabharata exist in hundreds of regional versions — Tamil Kambaramayanam, Bengali Krittivasi Ramayana, Odia Jagamohan Ramayana, Kannada Pampa Bharata — yet share a core narrative. This cultural "software" spread across the subcontinent without military conquest.
Temple architecture: Nagara (North Indian), Dravida (South Indian), and Vesara (mixed) temple styles reflect regional variations on a shared religious culture. The Chola bronzes, Hoysala sculptures, Khajuraho carvings, and Ajanta paintings are all expressions of this shared yet diverse artistic tradition.
Trade routes: Ancient India's internal trade routes (the famous "Northern Route" or Uttarapatha, and the Southern Route or Dakshinapatha) spread goods, religions (Buddhism, Jainism), languages, and cultural practices across the subcontinent centuries before political unity.
Linguistic diversity as strength: India's Constitution recognises 22 Scheduled Languages in the Eighth Schedule. The 2011 Census recorded 121 languages with 10,000+ speakers, and approximately 1,652 mother tongues. This diversity is not a weakness but the result of millennia of cultural evolution and interaction.
[Additional] 5a. Classical Languages of India — 11 Languages After October 2024 Cabinet Decision
The chapter mentions India's 22 Scheduled Languages (Eighth Schedule) but misses a separate, UPSC-critical designation: Classical Language status. In October 2024, the Union Cabinet granted this status to 5 more languages — bringing the total to 11 Classical Languages. Classical status is not a constitutional category (unlike Scheduled Languages) but a government policy designation with specific cultural and institutional benefits.
Classical Language — Key Terms:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Classical Language | Government of India designation for languages with demonstrated antiquity (1,500–2,000+ years of literary history), a rich heritage corpus, and distinct literary tradition |
| Eighth Schedule | Constitutional schedule listing India's 22 officially recognised languages (not the same as Classical Languages — two separate lists) |
| CIIL | Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore (under Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education) — nodal institution for Classical Language studies |
| Sahitya Akademi | India's national academy of letters; the Linguistics Experts Committee under Sahitya Akademi advises on Classical Language criteria and candidates |
| Presidential Award of Certificate of Honour | Annual award given to two distinguished scholars in each Classical Language — one of the benefits of Classical Language status |
Criteria for Classical Language status (revised July 2024):
- High antiquity of early texts — recorded history over 1,500–2,000 years
- A body of ancient literature/texts considered a valued heritage by generations of speakers
- Knowledge texts including prose, poetry, inscriptional and epigraphical evidence
- The language or its distinct literary form may be separate from its present-day spoken form
Note: The earlier criterion requiring the language to have an "original literary tradition not borrowed from another speech community" was dropped in 2024, as the committee found it impossible to apply strictly — all ancient languages borrowed from each other.
[Additional] India's 11 Classical Languages and October 2024 Cabinet Decision (GS1 — Art & Culture / GS2 — Cultural Policy):
Historical timeline of Classical Language designations:
| Year | Language | Notable feature |
|---|---|---|
| 2004 | Tamil | First language to receive Classical status; literary history dating to ~3rd century BCE (Tolkappiyam) |
| 2005 | Sanskrit | Foundation of Vedic, Buddhist, and classical Indian philosophical traditions |
| 2008 | Telugu | "Italian of the East" (Niccolo da Conti, 15th century); inscriptions from ~575 CE |
| 2008 | Kannada | Earliest inscriptions from ~450 CE (Halmidi inscription); distinct from Sanskrit literary tradition |
| 2013 | Malayalam | Derived from Tamil-Brahmi; independent literary tradition from ~13th century CE |
| 2014 | Odia | First Indian language (other than Sanskrit) to be written on palm leaves; inscriptions from ~10th century CE |
| October 3, 2024 | Marathi | Oldest known Marathi inscription at Shravanabelagola (983 CE); also present in inscriptions from 12th century onwards |
| October 3, 2024 | Pali | The language of the Theravada Buddhist Pali Canon; original language of the Tripitaka; ~3rd century BCE |
| October 3, 2024 | Prakrit | Middle Indo-Aryan languages including Ardhamagadhi (Jain texts) and Ashoka's Brahmi inscriptions |
| October 3, 2024 | Assamese | Earliest Assamese literature from ~13th-14th century CE; Chararyapada among early texts |
| October 3, 2024 | Bengali | Chararyapada (earliest Bengal/Assam Buddhist poetry, ~1000 CE); Nobel laureate tradition (Tagore); 2nd most widely spoken Indian language |
Benefits of Classical Language status:
- Two international awards per language per year: Presidential Award of Certificate of Honour; Maharshi Badrayan Vyas Samman Award
- Centres of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages — funded at Central Universities under CIIL Mysore
- Professional Chairs at central universities for teaching, research, and translation
- Grants for digitisation, translation, and publication of ancient manuscripts
Why Pali and Prakrit are significant (UPSC angle):
- Pali is not an Indian regional language — it is the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand). Granting it Classical status strengthens India's Buddhist diplomatic outreach (India-ASEAN, India-Sri Lanka)
- Prakrit includes the language of Ashoka's edicts — making India's recognition of Prakrit as a Classical Language an acknowledgment that the Mauryan state's official language has equal standing with Sanskrit
UPSC synthesis: Classical Languages is GS1 Art & Culture + GS2 cultural policy. Key exam facts: Category created 2004; first language = Tamil; total = 11 (as of October 3, 2024); the 5 new = Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali; criteria body = Linguistics Experts Committee under Sahitya Akademi (criteria revised July 2024); benefits = two awards per year + Centres of Excellence (CIIL Mysore) + UGC chairs; Classical Languages ≠ Scheduled Languages (22 in Eighth Schedule — two different lists). Frequent Prelims trap: confusing "Classical" with "Scheduled" or mixing up which language got what status in which year.
[Additional] 5b. India's UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage — 16 Elements Including Deepavali (2025)
The chapter mentions that Vedic Chanting was inscribed by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008. But India now has 16 elements on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (as of December 2025) — including Durga Puja (2021), Garba of Gujarat (2023), and Deepavali (2025), the most recent inscription made at a session hosted by India in New Delhi.
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage — Key Terms:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) | Living traditions, expressions, knowledge, and skills that communities recognise as part of their cultural heritage — opposed to "tangible" WHS (monuments, sites) |
| UNESCO 2003 Convention | "Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage" — the treaty under which ICH inscriptions happen; India ratified this convention |
| Representative List (RL) | The main UNESCO ICH list: elements whose inscription promotes visibility and awareness; does not mean "endangered" |
| Urgent Safeguarding List (USL) | UNESCO ICH list for elements at risk of disappearance — India has NO elements on this list |
| Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) | The UNESCO body (24 states elected by the Conference of Parties) that meets annually to decide ICH inscriptions |
[Additional] India's 16 UNESCO ICH Elements — Complete List (GS1 — Art & Culture):
Chronological list — all 16 Indian elements on UNESCO's Representative List:
| Year | Element | Category |
|---|---|---|
| 2003* | Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theatre | Performing arts |
| 2008 | Tradition of Vedic Chanting | Oral traditions |
| 2008 | Ramlila — traditional performance of Ramayana | Performing arts |
| 2009 | Ramman — religious festival, Garhwal Himalayas | Social practices |
| 2010 | Mudiyettu — ritual theatre of Kerala | Performing arts |
| 2010 | Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan | Performing arts |
| 2010 | Chhau Dance | Performing arts |
| 2012 | Buddhist Chanting of Ladakh | Social practices |
| 2013 | Sankirtana — ritual singing, drumming, dancing, Manipur | Social practices |
| 2014 | Traditional brass and copper craft of Thatheras, Punjab | Traditional crafts |
| 2016 | Yoga | Social practices |
| 2016 | Nowruz (Navroz) | Social practices (multi-country) |
| 2017 | Kumbh Mela | Social practices |
| 2021 | Durga Puja in Kolkata | Social practices |
| 2023 | Garba of Gujarat | Performing arts |
| 2025 | Deepavali | Social practices |
*Kutiyattam was on the "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" list (2001) before the 2003 Convention created the formal RL; transferred to RL in 2008.
Key recent inscriptions:
Garba of Gujarat (2023):
- Inscribed at the 18th session of the IGC, Kasane (Botswana), December 5–9, 2023
- A ritualistic and devotional circle dance performed during the 9-night Navaratri festival
- Celebrated for its inclusive nature — performed across economic and gender lines
- India's 15th ICH element
Deepavali (2025) — India hosts UNESCO ICH Committee:
- Inscribed on December 10, 2025 at the 20th session of the IGC — held in New Delhi, India
- This was the first time India hosted the UNESCO ICH Intergovernmental Committee session
- Domain: "Social practices, rituals and festive events"
- Recognised for its role in expressing joy, light over darkness, and community gathering across India and the Indian diaspora globally
- India's 16th ICH element
Pattern for Prelims: India has 4 festive/social practices inscribed: Kumbh Mela (2017), Durga Puja in Kolkata (2021), Garba (2023), Deepavali (2025). All relate to major Hindu festivals or traditions — but UNESCO ICH recognition is cultural, not religious.
Nowruz (Navroz) — multi-country note: India's Nowruz inscription in 2016 was shared with 11 other countries (Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan). Multi-country nominations count for each country; India's Parsi community maintains Navroz traditions.
UPSC synthesis: UNESCO ICH inscriptions appear regularly in Prelims. Key exam facts: Total = 16 (as of December 2025); Convention = UNESCO 2003; India has no elements on Urgent Safeguarding List; Deepavali = December 10 2025, 20th IGC session, New Delhi (India hosted for first time); Garba = December 2023, Botswana; Durga Puja = December 2021; Kumbh Mela = 2017; Yoga = 2016; Vedic Chanting = 2008 (NOT the first — Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theatre was first in 2003). Common Prelims question: "Which was the first Indian element inscribed?" → Kutiyattam (2003).
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- Dholavira = UNESCO WHS 2021 (India's 40th WHS); located in Gujarat (Rann of Kutch/Kachchh)
- Rakhigarhi = largest IVC site; in Haryana (Hisar district); NOT Gujarat
- Mohenjo-daro = Sindh, Pakistan (not India); excavated by R.D. Banerji (1922)
- Lothal has a dockyard (Gujarat); Kalibangan has a ploughed field (Rajasthan)
- IVC script = undeciphered; ~400 signs; written right to left (boustrophedon)
- Surkotada (Gujarat) = horse remains found (disputed); do NOT confuse with Lothal
- Cotton cultivated first by the Harappans — "Sindon" (Greek for cotton) comes from Sindh
- The Rig Veda has 1,028 hymns (not 1,000 or 1,028 verses — it's hymns)
- Tolkappiyam = Tamil grammar text (~300 BCE); NOT a Sanskrit text; NOT a Vedic text
- Vedic chanting inscribed by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008
- India has 22 Scheduled Languages in the Eighth Schedule (not 18 or 24)
Mains angles:
- IVC decline: Climate change hypothesis vs Aryan invasion theory — how genetic evidence (Rakhigarhi 2019) has shifted the debate
- Continuities between IVC and later Indian culture (water ritual, yoga posture, cattle reverence, urban planning)
- Dravidian heritage and the unity of Indian civilisation — how North-South cultural exchange shaped India
Practice Questions
Prelims:
Which of the following Harappan sites is located in India (not Pakistan)?
(a) Harappa
(b) Mohenjo-daro
(c) Dholavira
(d) Kot DijiConsider the following statements about the Harappan Civilisation:
- The Harappan script has been fully deciphered.
- Cotton was first cultivated by the Harappans.
- The site at Lothal in Gujarat had a dockyard.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (The Harappan script remains undeciphered)
(d) 1, 2 and 3
- The Harappan script has been fully deciphered.
'Tolkappiyam', one of the oldest grammatical texts, belongs to which language?
(a) Sanskrit
(b) Pali
(c) Tamil
(d) Kannada
Mains:
How does the Harappan Civilisation reflect a high level of urban planning and social organisation? What do we know about its decline, and what are the limitations of our knowledge? (CSE Mains 2019, GS Paper 1, 15 marks)
"The Upanishads represent a philosophical revolution within the Vedic tradition." Explain the key philosophical concepts introduced in the Upanishads and their lasting influence on Indian thought. (CSE Mains 2017, GS Paper 1, 10 marks)
